Alaska (redirected from Alas.)

Alaska (əlă`skə), largest in area of the United States but third smallest (exceeding only Vermont and Wyoming) in population, occupying the northwest extremity of the North American continent, separated from the coterminous United States by W Canada. It is bordered by Yukon Territory and British Columbia (E), the Gulf of Alaska and the Pacific Ocean (S), the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Chukchi Sea (W), and the Beaufort Sea and the Arctic Ocean (N).

Facts and Figures

Area, 656,424 sq mi (1,700,135 sq km), including 86,051 sq mi (222,871 sq km) of water surface. Pop. (2000) 628,932, a 14% increase since the 1990 census. Capital, Juneau. Largest city, Anchorage. Statehood, Jan. 3, 1959 (49th state). Highest pt., Mt. McKinley, 20,320 ft (6,198 m); lowest pt., sea level. Motto, North to the Future. State bird, willow ptarmigan. State flower, forget-me-not. State tree, Sitka spruce. Abbr., AK

Land and People

Nearly one fifth the size of the rest of the United States, Alaska is, at the tip of the Seward Peninsula in the northwest, only a few miles from the Russian Far East; the two are separated by the narrow Bering Strait. The Seward Peninsula, chiefly tundra covered, is sparsely inhabited. The Bering Strait widens in the north to the Chukchi Sea, which slices into Alaska with Kotzebue Sound; in the south the strait widens to the Bering Sea, which cuts into Alaska with Norton Sound and Bristol Bay.

Toward the south the state again extends toward Russia in the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands, reaching a total of 1,200 mi (1,931 km) toward the Komandorski Islands; together they divide the Bering Sea from the Pacific. The Aleutian Range, which is the spine of the Alaska Peninsula, is continued in the grass-covered, treeless Aleutian Islands; the climate there is unremittingly harsh—foggy, damp, and cold in the winter and subject to violent winds (williwaws). Once traversed by Russian fur traders hunting sea otters, the Aleutians are now chiefly of strategic importance. They contain several active volcanoes.

The southern coast of Alaska is deeply indented by two inlets of the wide Gulf of Alaska, Cook Inlet and Prince William Sound; the Kenai Peninsula between them extends southwest toward Kodiak Island. The narrow Panhandle dips southeast along the coast from the Gulf of Alaska, cutting into British Columbia. It consists of the offshore islands of the Alexander Archipelago and the narrow coast, which rises steeply to the peaks of the Coast Range and the Saint Elias Mts. Winters in the Panhandle are relatively mild, with heavy rainfall and, except on the upper slopes of the mountains, comparatively little snow.

The interior of Alaska, on the other hand, has very cold winters and short, hot summers. In Arctic Alaska, north of the Brooks Range, the temperature in winter reaches −10°F; to −40°F; (−23.3°C; to −40°C;). The land there is mostly barren, cut by many short rivers and one long one, the Colville. Alaska's major river is the Yukon, which crosses the state from east to west for 1,200 mi (1,931 km), from the Canadian border to the Bering Sea. The northernmost reach of Alaska is Point Barrow.

Alaska's climate and terrain (rough coast and high mountain ranges) divide it into relatively isolated regions, and transportation relies heavily on costly airlines. The Panhandle is the most populous region; Juneau, the state's capital and third largest city, is there. The Panhandle's connection with Seattle is by ships, which ply the Inside Passage between the coast and the offshore islands. In S central Alaska, Anchorage, the state's largest city, is the center for the Alaskan RR and for airways; it is also connected with the Alaska Highway. On the Seward Peninsula and Norton Sound, Nome, founded when gold was discovered (1898) in the sands of local beaches, is now a small, isolated settlement. Southern ports including Seward, Anchorage, and Valdez are linked by highway with Fairbanks, the state's second largest (and largest interior) city. Cordova and Kodiak depend upon the ocean lanes. On the North Slope, the entire Arctic coast is icebound most of the year, and the ground remains permanently frozen.

The state abounds in natural wonders. In the Panhandle, the scenic beauty of the mountains and the rugged fjord-indented coast are augmented by such attractions as the Malaspina glacier and the acres of blue ice in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve. In the Alaska Range of S central Alaska stands the highest point in North America, Mt. McKinley (Denali) in Denali National Park and Preserve. The Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands have numerous volcanoes; Katmai National Park and Preserve contains the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, scene of a volcanic eruption in 1912.

In the mid-1990s slightly over three quarters of the state's population was white and some 15% was Native American (largely Eskimo and Aleut).

Economy

Alaska has very little agriculture, ranking last in the nation in number of farms and value of farm products. The state's best arable land is in its S central region, in the Matanuska Valley N of Anchorage and the Tanana Valley (around Fairbanks). The state's most valuable farm commodities are greenhouse and dairy products and potatoes.

Alaska leads the nation in the value of its commercial fishing catch—chiefly salmon, crab, shrimp, halibut, herring, and cod. Anchorage and Dutch Harbor are major fishing ports, and the freezing and canning of fish dominates the food-processing industry, the state's largest manufacturing enterprise. Lumbering and related industries are of great importance, although disputes over logging in the state's great national forests are ongoing. Mining, principally of petroleum and natural gas, is the state's most valuable industry. Gold, which led to settlement at the end of the 19th cent., is no longer mined in quantity. Fur-trapping, Alaska's oldest industry, endures; pelts are obtained from a great variety of animals. The Pribilof Islands are especially noted as a source of sealskins (the seals there are owned by the U.S. government, and their use is carefully regulated).

In 1968 vast reserves of oil and natural gas were discovered on the Alaska North Slope near Prudhoe Bay. The petroleum reservoir was determined to be twice the size of any other field in North America. The 800-mi (1,287-km) Trans-Alaska pipeline from the North Slope to the ice-free port of Valdez opened in 1977, after bitter opposition from environmentalists, and oil began to dominate the state economy. The Alaska Permanent Fund, created in 1977, receives 25% of Alaska's oil royalty income. The fund is designed to provide the state with income after the oil reserves are depleted and has paid dividends to all residents.

Government—federal, state, and local—is Alaska's major source of employment. The state's strategic location has generated considerable defense activity since World War II, including the establishment of highways, airfields, and permanent military bases. Alaska's tourism increased dramatically with the help of improvements in transportation; it now follows only oil among the state's industries. The Inside Passage, Denali National Park, and the 1000-mi (1,600 km) Iditarod sled-dog race are major attractions.

Government, Politics, and Higher Education

Alaska operates under a constitution drawn up and ratified in 1956 (effective with statehood). Its executive branch is headed by a governor and a secretary of state, both elected (on the same ticket) for four-year terms. Alaska's bicameral legislature has a senate with 20 members and a house of representatives with 40 members. The state sends two senators and one representative to the U.S. Congress and has three electoral votes.

Democrats at first dominated state politics, but Republicans have gained gradual ascendance since 1966. A Democrat, Tony Knowles, was elected governor in 1994 and reelected in 1998. The GOP recaptured the governorship in 2002 when Frank Murkowski was elected to the office. In 2006 Republican Sarah Palin was elected governor, defeating Murkowski in the primary and Knowles in the general election. She was the first woman to win the governship.

Alaska's educational institutions include the Univ. of Alaska, with divisions at Fairbanks, Anchorage, and Juneau; and Alaska Pacific Univ., at Anchorage.

History

Russian Colonization

The disastrous voyage of Vitus Bering and Aleksey Chirikov in 1741 began the march of Russian traders across Siberia. The survivors who returned with sea otter skins started a rush of fur hunters to the Aleutian Islands. Grigori Shelekhov in 1784 founded the first permanent settlement in Alaska on Kodiak Island and sent (1790) to Alaska the man who was to dominate the period of Russian influence there, Aleksandr Baranov. A monopoly was granted to the Russian American Company in 1799, and it was Baranov who directed its Alaskan activities. Baranov extended the Russian trade far down the west coast of North America and even, after several unsuccessful attempts, founded (1812) a settlement in N California.

Rivalry for the northwest coast was strong, and British and American trading vessels began to threaten the Russian monopoly. In 1821 the czar issued a ukase (imperial command) claiming the 51st parallel as the southern boundary of Alaska and warning foreign vessels not to trespass beyond it. British and American protests, the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine, and Russian embroilment elsewhere resulted (1824) in a negotiated settlement of the boundary at lat. 54°40'N (the present southern boundary of Alaska). Russian interests in Alaska gradually declined, and after the Crimean War, Russia sought to dispose of the territory altogether.

Early Years as a U.S. Possession

In 1867, Russia sold Alaska to the United States for $7,200,000. The U.S. purchase was accomplished solely through the determined efforts of Secretary of State William H. Seward, and for many years afterward the land was derisively called Seward's Folly or Seward's Icebox because of its supposed uselessness. Since Alaska appeared to offer no immediate financial return, it was neglected. The U.S. army officially controlled the area until 1876, when scandals caused the withdrawal of the troops. After a brief period, during which government was in the hands of customs officials, the U.S. navy was given charge (1879). Most of the territory was not even known, although the British (notably John Franklin and Capt. F. W. Beechey) had explored the coast of the Arctic Ocean, and the Hudson's Bay Company had explored the Yukon.

It was not until after the discovery of gold in the Juneau region in 1880 that Alaska was given a governor and a feeble local administration (under the Organic Act of 1884). Missionaries, who had come to the region in the late 1870s, exercised considerable influence. Most influential was Sheldon Jackson, best known for his introduction of reindeer to help the Alaska Eskimo (Inuit), impoverished by the wanton destruction of the fur seals. Sealing was the subject of a long international controversy (see Bering Sea Fur-Seal Controversy under Bering Sea), which was not ended until after gold had permanently transformed Alaska.

The Gold Rush

Paradoxically, the first gold finds that tremendously influenced Alaska were in Canada. The Klondike strike of 1896 brought a stampede, mainly of Americans, and most of them came through Alaska. The big discoveries in Alaska itself followed—Nome in 1898–99, Fairbanks in 1902. The miners and prospectors (the sourdoughs) took over Alaska, and the era of the mining camps reached its height; a criminal code was belatedly applied in 1899.

The longstanding controversy concerning the boundary between the Alaska Panhandle and British Columbia was aggravated by the large number of miners traveling the Inside Passage to the gold fields. The matter was finally settled in 1903 by a six-man tribunal, composed of American, Canadian, and British representatives. The decision was generally favorable to the United States, and a period of rapid building and development began. Mining, requiring heavy financing, passed into the hands of Eastern capitalists, notably the monopolistic Alaska Syndicate. Opposition to these "interests" became the burning issue in Alaska and was catapulted into national politics; Gifford Pinchot and R. A. Ballinger were the chief antagonists, and this was a major issue on which Theodore Roosevelt split with President William Howard Taft.

Territorial Status

Juneau officially replaced Sitka as capital in 1900, but it did not begin to function as such until 1906. In the same year Alaska was finally awarded a territorial representative in Congress. A new era began for Alaska when local government was established in 1912 and it became a U.S. territory. The building of the Alaska RR from Seward to Fairbanks was commenced with government funds in 1915. Already, however, gold mining was dying out, and Alaska receded into one of its quiet periods. The fishing industry, which had gradually advanced during the gold era, became the major enterprise.

Alaska enjoyed an economic boom during World War II. The Alaska Highway was built, supplying a weak but much-needed link with the United States. After Japanese troops occupied the Aleutian islands of Attu and Kiska, U.S. forces prepared for a counterattack. Attu was retaken in May, 1943, after intense fighting, and the Japanese evacuated Kiska in August after intensive U.S. bombardments. Dutch Harbor became a major key in the U.S. defense system. The growth of air travel after the war, and the permanent military bases established in Alaska resulted in tremendous growth; between 1950 and 1960 the population nearly doubled.

Statehood to the Present

In 1958, Alaskans approved statehood by a 5 to 1 vote, and on Jan. 3, 1959, Alaska was officially admitted into the Union as a state, the first since Arizona in 1912. On Mar. 27, 1964, the strongest earthquake ever recorded in North America occurred in Alaska, taking approximately 114 lives and causing extensive property damage. Some cities were almost totally destroyed, and the fishing industry was especially hard hit, with the loss of fleets, docks, and canneries from the resulting tsunami. Reconstruction, with large-scale federal aid, was rapid. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (1971) gave roughly 44 million acres (17.8 million hectares; 10% of the state) and almost $1 billion to Alaskan native peoples in exchange for renunciation of all aboriginal claims to land in the state. In 1989 the tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground in Prince William Sound, releasing 11 million gallons of oil into the water in the worst oil spill in U.S. history and severely damaging the ecosystem. A jury in 1994 found Exxon Corp. (now ExxonMobil) and the ship's captain negligent, but the amount of punitive damages to be paid to a group of 14,000 commercial fishermen and other plaintiffs continues to be contested in the courts.

Bibliography

See C. C. Hulley, Alaska, Past and Present (3d ed. 1970); B. Keating, Alaska (2d ed. 1971); H. W. Clark, History of Alaska (1930, repr. 1972); B. Cooper, Alaska, the Last Frontier (1973); Federal Writers' Project, A Guide to Alaska, Last American Frontier (1940, repr. 1973); L. Thomas Jr., Alaska and the Yukon (1983); R. W. Pearson and D. F. Lynch, Alaska: A Geography; J. Strohmeyer, Extreme Conditions: Big Oil and the Transformation of Alaska (1993).

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Alaska

State (pop., 2000: 626,932) of the U.S., lying at the northwest extremity of North America. It is the largest in area of the U.S. states, covering 587,875 sq mi (1,522,595 sq km). Bordered by Canada to the east and southeast and facing Siberia across the Bering Strait and Bering Sea to the west, it has the highest point on the continent, Mount McKinley. Its capital is Juneau. The original inhabitants, Indians and Eskimos, are thought to have migrated over the Bering Land Bridge as well as from the Arctic. The first European settlement was established in the late 18th century by Russian fur traders on Kodiak Island. Hudson's Bay Co. traders were also interested in the same area, and Russian-Canadian trade rivalry lasted well into the 19th century. In 1867 William Seward negotiated Alaska's sale from the Russians to the U.S., and the subsequent discovery of gold stimulated American settlement. Alaska was a U.S. territory from 1912 until it was admitted as the 49th state in 1959. Its economy has become increasingly centred on oil and natural gas: since the opening of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline in 1977, Alaska has become second only to Texas in the U.S. production of crude oil.

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Alaska

1. the largest state of the US, in the extreme northwest of North America: the aboriginal inhabitants are Inuit and Yupik; the earliest White settlements were made by the Russians; it was purchased by the US from Russia in 1867. It is mostly mountainous and volcanic, rising over 6000 m (20 000 ft.), with the Yukon basin in the central region; large areas are covered by tundra; it has important mineral resources (chiefly coal, oil, and natural gas). Capital: Juneau. Pop.: 648 818 (2003 est.). Area: 1 530 694 sq. km (591 004 sq. miles)

2. Gulf of. the N part of the Pacific, between the Alaska Peninsula and the Alexander Archipelago

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Alaska State Information

Phone: (907) 465-2111
www.state.ak.us


Area (sq mi): 663267.26 (land 571951.26; water 91316.00). Pop per sq mi: 1.20.
Pop 2005: 663,661. State rank: 0. Pop change: 2000-20005 5.90%; 1990-2000 14.00%. Pop 2000: 626,932 (White 67.60%; Black or African American 3.50%; Hispanic or Latino 4.10%; Asian 4.00%; Other 23.10%). Foreign born: 5.90%. Median age: 32.40.
Income 2000: per capita $22,660; median household $51,571; Pop below poverty level: 9.40%. *Personal per capita income 2000-2003: $29,867-$33,213.
Unemployment 2004: 7.40%. Change from 2000: 1.20%. Median travel time to work: 19.60 minutes. Working outside county of residence: 6.00%.

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List of Alaska counties:

Aleutians East Borough Aleutians West Census Area Anchorage Borough Bethel Census Area Bristol Bay Borough Denali Borough Dillingham Census Area Fairbanks North Star Borough Haines Borough

Juneau City & Borough Kenai Peninsula Borough Ketchikan Gateway Borough Kodiak Island Borough Lake & Peninsula Borough Matanuska-Susitna Borough Nome Census Area North Slope Borough Northwest Arctic Borough

Prince of Wales-Outer Ketchikan Census Area Sitka City & Borough Skagway-Hoonah-Angoon Census Area Southeast Fairbanks Census Area Valdez-Cordova Census Area Wade Hampton Census Area Wrangell-Petersburg Census Area Yakutat City & Borough Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area

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Alaska Parks

• US National Parks

  Alagnak Wild River Aleutian World War II National Historic Area Aniakchak National Monument & Preserve Bering Land Bridge National Preserve Cape Krusenstern National Monument Denali National Park & Preserve

  Gates of the Arctic National Park & Preserve Glacier Bay National Park & Preserve Inupiat Heritage Center Katmai National Park & Preserve Kenai Fjords National Park Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park

  Kobuk Valley National Park Lake Clark National Park & Preserve Noatak National Preserve Sitka National Historical Park Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park & Preserve Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve

• Urban Parks

  Burns Park

  Kincaid Park

• State Parks

  Afognak Island State Park Alaska Chilkat Bald Eagle Preserve Anchor River State Recreation Area Baranof Castle Hill State Historic Site Beecher Pass State Marine Park Bettles Bay State Marine Park Big Bear/Baby Bear State Marine Park Big Delta State Historical Park Big Lake North State Recreation Site Big Lake South State Recreation Site Birch Lake State Recreation Area Black Sands Beach State Marine Park Blair Lake State Recreation Site Blueberry Lake State Recreation Site Boswell Bay State Marine Park Buskin River State Recreation Site Caines Head State Recreation Area Canoe Passage State Marine Park Captain Cook State Recreation Area Chena River State Recreation Area Chena River State Recreation Site Chilkat Islands State Marine Park Chilkat State Park Chilkoot Lake State Recreation Site Chugach State Park Clam Gulch State Recreation Area Clearwater State Recreation Site Crooked Creek State Recreation Site Dall Bay State Marine Park Decision Point State Marine Park Deep Creek State Recreation Area Delta State Recreation Site Denali State Park Donnelly Creek State Recreation Site Driftwood Bay State Marine Park Dry Creek State Recreation Site Eagle Beach State Recreation Area Eagle Trail State Recreation Site Entry Cove State Marine Park Ernest Gruening State Historical Park

  Fielding Lake State Recreation Site Finger Lake State Recreation Area Fort Abercrombie State Historical Park Funter Bay State Marine Park Granite Bay State Marine Park Grindall Island State Marine Park Halibut Point State Recreation Site Harding Lake State Recreation Area Hatcher Pass East Management Area Horseshoe Bay State Marine Park Independence Mine State Historical Park Jack Bay State Marine Park Joe Mace Island State Marine Park Johnson Creek State Recreation Site Johnson Lake State Recreation Area Juneau Trail System Kachemak Bay State Park & State Wilderness Park Kasilof River State Recreation Site Kayak Island State Marine Park Kenai River Special Management Area Kepler-Bradley Lakes State Recreation Area King Mountain State Recreation Site Lake Aleknagik State Recreation Site Lake Louise State Recreation Area Liberty Falls State Recreation Site Lowell Point State Recreation Site Lower Chatanika River State Recreation Area Magoun Islands State Marine Park Matanuska Glacier State Recreation Site Montana Creek State Recreation Site Moon Lake State Recreation Site Mosquito Lake State Recreation Site Nancy Lake State Recreation Area Nancy Lake State Recreation Site Ninilchik State Recreation Area Old Sitka State Historic Site Oliver Inlet State Marine Park Pasagshak River State Recreation Site Petroglyph Beach State Historic Site Point Bridget State Park

  Porcupine Creek State Recreation Site Portage Cove State Recreation Site Potter Section House State Historic Site Quartz Lake State Recreation Area Refuge Cove State Recreation Site Rocky Lake State Recreation Site Safety Cove State Marine Park Saint James Bay State Marine Park Salcha River State Recreation Site Sandspit Point State Marine Park Sawmill Bay State Marine Park Scout Lake State Recreation Area Sea Lion Cove State Marine Park Security Bay State Marine Park Settlers Cove State Recreation Site Shelter Island State Marine Park Shoup Bay State Marine Park Shuyak Island State Park South Esther Island State Marine Park Squirrel Creek State Recreation Site Stariski State Recreation Site Sullivan Island State Marine Park Summit Lake State Recreation Site Sunny Cove State Marine Park Surprise Cove State Marine Park Taku Harbor State Marine Park Thom's Place State Marine Park Thumb Cove State Marine Park Tok River State Recreation Site Tokositna River State Recreation Site Totem Bight State Historical Park Upper Chatanika River State Recreation Site Wickersham State Historic Site Willow Creek State Recreation Area Wood-Tikchik State Park Woody Island State Recreation Site Worthington Glacier State Recreation Site Ziegler Cove State Marine Park

• Parks and Conservation-Related Organizations - US

  Alaska Wildlife Alliance

  Tongass Conservation Society (TCS)

• National Wildlife Refuges

  Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge Alaska Peninsula National Wildlife Refuge Arctic National Wildlife Refuge Becharof National Wildlife Refuge Innoko National Wildlife Refuge Izembek National Wildlife Refuge

  Kanuti National Wildlife Refuge Kenai National Wildlife Refuge Kodiak National Wildlife Refuge Koyukuk National Wildlife Refuge Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge Selawik National Wildlife Refuge

  Tetlin National Wildlife Refuge Togiak National Wildlife Refuge Yukon Delta National Wildlife Refuge Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge

• National Trails

  Iditarod National Historic Trail

  Iditarod National Historic Trail

• National Scenic Byways

  Alaska's Marine Highway

  Glenn Highway

  Seward Highway

• National Forests

  Chugach National Forest

  Tongass National Forest

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Alaska

Forty-ninth state; admitted on January 3, 1959

State capital: Juneau

Nickname: The Last Frontier

State motto: North to the Future

State bird: Willow ptarmigan (Lagopus lagopus)

State fish: Chinook (king) salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha)

State flower: Forget-me-not (Myosotis sylvatica or M. scorpi­oides)

State fossil: Woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius)

State gem: Jade

State insect: Four spot skimmer dragonfly

State land mammal: Moose

State marine mammal: Bowhead whale (Balaena mysticetus)

State mineral: Gold

State song: “Alaska’s Flag”

State sport: Dogteam racing (mushing)

State tree: Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)

More about state symbols at:

www.commerce.state.ak.us/oed/student_info/student.htm

SOURCES:

AmerBkDays-2000, p. 16 AnnivHol-2000, p. 3

STATE OFFICES:

State web site: www.state.ak.us

Office of the Governor PO Box 110011 Juneau, AK 99811 907-465-3500 fax: 907-465-3532 www.gov.state.ak.us

Alaska State Library PO Box 110571 Juneau, AK 99811 907-465-2910 fax: 907-465-2151 www.library.state.ak.us

Legal Holidays:

Alaska Day	Oct 18
Seward's Day	Mar 28, 2011; Mar 26, 2012; Mar 25, 2013; Mar 31, 2014; Mar 30, 2015

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Alaska 

a state in northwestern North America, separated from the United States mainland by Canadian territory. Alaska has an area of 1,519,000 sq km and a population of 277,900 (1967), approximately 44,000 of whom are native Indians, Aleuts, and Eskimos (1960). Its capital is Juneau.

Alaska’s population is concentrated mostly in the south and southeast. Its major cities are Anchorage, Ketchikan, Juneau, and Sitka; in the inner, sparsely populated part of the state, Fairbanks is the major city.

Topography and climate The northern and central regions are primarily plains and plateaus, up to 1,200 m high, that are covered with tundra vegetation and sparse forests. The climate is cold and continental—in Fairbanks the average temperature in January is -24.8°C and in June, +15.7°C. The annual precipitation is 300 mm. Winter lasts from six to eight months; permafrost is found everywhere. There are small areas of farmland along the valleys of the major rivers, the Yukon and the Colville. The south, southwest, and southeast are coastal regions with many islands and convenient warm-water bays. The topography is mostly mountainous (Mount McKinley, 6,193 m), and the climate is moist and temperate. In Juneau the average temperature in January is -1.6°C and in June, + 13.3°C. The annual precipitation is 1,500–4,000 mm. Thick evergreen forests grow on the mountain slopes in the south and southeast; meadows predominate in the southwest.

History According to many scholars, the ancestors of the modern native inhabitants of Alaska—the Indians, Eskimos, and Aleuts—migrated from northeast Asia. Until the discovery of Alaska by Russian explorers in the 17th century, the Eskimos lived primarily in the coastal regions and engaged mostly in marine animal hunting, fishing, and reindeer hunting. The Aleuts lived on the Alaskan peninsula and hunted marine animals. The Indians—the Tlingits and Haidas on the southeastern coast and the Athapascans in the interior—relied on fishing and hunting. During the 1730’s, as a result of the expeditions of P. Nagibin, V. Bering, A. Mel’nikov, I. Fedorov, and M. Gvozdev, the first explorations of Alaska were undertaken. However, it is customary to associate the discovery of Alaska only with A. Chirikov’s expedition in 1741. From the 1740’s until the end of the century, more than 80 exploratory and trade expeditions were sent to the northern shores of America. In 1784 the first Russian settlement was established on Kodiak Island by the merchant G. I. Shelikhov. In 1798 the merchants Shelikhov, Myl’nikov, and Golikov created the United American Company; in 1799 it was named the Russian-American Company, which acquired a monopoly on all trade and minerals located on the northwestern coast of America from 55° N lat. to the Bering Strait and on the Aleutians, Kurils, and other islands. The company was also given the right to claim lands not occupied by other powers. Novo-Arkhangel’sk (now Sitka) became the center of Alaska. The first ruler of the Russian settlement in America (1790–1818) was A. Baranov.

Round-the-world expeditions, undertaken by the Russian-American Company (13 expeditions between 1804 and 1840), maintained regular connections between Alaska and Russia. Russian explorers made a significant contribution to the study of Alaska. Especially important were the scientific expeditions of A. Kashevarov (1838) and L. Zagoskin (1842–44). Possession of Alaska brought Russia into conflict with England and the United States. In 1821, by the decree of Alexander I, foreign ships were forbidden to sail along the shores of the Russian possessions in Alaska. However, Russia was soon forced to grant the USA (1824) and England (1825) favorable terms for navigation and trade in this region. In 1834 the Hudson Bay Company, supported by the English government, attempted to secure a hold on the Russian possessions at the mouth of the Stikine (Stakhin) River. In 1839 the conflict was resolved in favor of this company, which received a favorable lease on the coastal strip of the Russian possessions from 54° 40’ N lat. to 58° 20’ N lat. In addition, the military position of Russian Alaska was precarious. During the Crimean War of 1853–56, the tsarist government lacked the necessary force in the Pacific Ocean area to defend the Russian settlements in North America. Under these conditions, the tsarist government decided to sell Alaska. Of the two competitors—the USA and England—Russia preferred the former, hoping for American support in the fight to liquidate the conditions of the Paris treaty of 1856. According to the agreement of March 18 (30), 1867, Alaska was sold to the USA for $7.2 million—that is, for less than 11 million rubles.

After the purchase of Alaska, American capitalists embarked upon rapacious exploitation of its natural wealth. The native population of Eskimos, Indians, and Aleuts was subjected to cruel oppression and doomed to gradual extinction. At the end of the 19th century, huge deposits of gold were discovered in the nearest region of Canada (Klondike) and then on Alaskan territory. This produced the so-called gold fever. The key economic positions were seized by the monopolistic groups of Morgan, E. H. Harriman, and others. Between 1867 and 1884, Alaska was controlled by the US Department of War. From 1884 to 1912 it was a possession headed by a governor, and in 1912 it became a US territory. Since 1958 it has been a state of the USA. There are many airfields and air force and naval bases in Alaska.

Economy The economic base of Alaska—fishing, fish processing, fur trapping, and mining—was formed during the 1920’s. In connection with major military construction begun during World War II, the significance of the older branches of the economy is constantly decreasing. In 1965, out of a total work force of 70,000 men, approximately 30,000 worked in government institutions primarily connected with the maintenance of the army in Alaska.

Agriculture, in spite of the availability of huge tracts of land suitable for cultivation, is highly undeveloped. There are several hundred farms, for the most part small. The major agricultural regions are in the valley of the Matanuska River and on the Kenai Peninsula. Most of the food is imported. The major local products are fresh vegetables, potatoes, milk, and milk products. Fishing and fish canning account for approximately half of Alaska’s gross output. However, catches are decreasing as a result of depleted resources of valuable species of fish. Reindeer breeding, which was once widespread, has declined. Mining has provided an insignificant output of coal (the Matanuska Valley), oil (the Kenai Peninsula), tin, and chromite. Gold mining near Fairbanks and on the Seward Peninsula is decreasing. In 1968–69 rich oil deposits were discovered in northern Alaska. The manufacturing industry is represented largely by fish canneries and sawmills. In Ketchikan and Sitka there are two large pulp and paper mills.

Ships are the prime means of transportation to points outside the state. The Alaskan Highway, a major part of which passes through Canada, connects Alaska with the US mainland. Major air routes between the USA and the countries of the East pass over Alaska. Fairbanks and especially Anchorage have major airports. There are approximately 930 km of railroad and 6,260 km of paved roads (1964). Internal transportation is provided by highways and by the railroad going from the Pacific Ocean to the Yukon River basin. Local aircraft is used to transport freight and passengers. During the winter, some freight is transported by tractor sleds and dog sleds.

REFERENCES

Efimov, A. V. Iz istorii russkikh ekspeditsii na Tikhom okeane. Moscow, 1948.
Efimov, A. V. Iz istorii velikikh russkikh geograficheskikh otkrytii. Moscow, 1949.
Puteshestviia i issledovaniia leitenanta Lavrentiia Zagoskina ν russkoi Amerike v 1824–1844 gg. Moscow, 1956.
Okun’, S. B. Rossiisko-amerikanskaia kompaniia. Moscow-Leningrad, 1939.
Kovalevskii, V. P. Alaska. Moscow, 1952.
Hulley, C. C. Alaska: 1741–1953. Portland, 1953.

A. V. ANTIPOVA, V. P. KOVALEVSKII, and C. B. OKUN’