American art definition of American art in the Free Online Encyclopedia.

American art, the art of the North American colonies and of the United States. There are separate articles on American architecture American architecture, the architecture produced in the geographical area that now constitutes the United States.

Early History

American architecture properly begins in the 17th cent. with the colonization of the North American continent.
..... Click the link for more information. , North American Native art North American Native art, diverse traditional arts of Native North Americans. In recent years Native American arts have become commodities collected and marketed by nonindigenous Americans and Europeans.
..... Click the link for more information. , pre-Columbian art and architecture pre-Columbian art and architecture, works of art and structures created in Central and South America before the arrival of Europeans in the Western Hemisphere.
..... Click the link for more information. , Mexican art and architecture Mexican art and architecture, works of art and structures produced in the area that is now the country of Mexico. Such arts were already highly developed in the ancient civilizations flourishing before the conquest of Cortés.
..... Click the link for more information. , Spanish colonial art and architecture Spanish colonial art and architecture, fl. 16th–early 19th cent., the artistic production of Spain's colonies in the New World. These works followed the historical development of styles previously established in Spain, but developed original features in
..... Click the link for more information. , and Canadian art and architecture Canadian art and architecture, the various types and styles arts and structures produced in the geographic area that now constitutes Canada.

For a discussion of the art of indigenous peoples of Canada, see North American Native art .
..... Click the link for more information. .

The Colonial Period

In the 17th cent. the North American colonies enjoyed neither the wealth nor the leisure to cultivate the fine arts extensively. Colonial artisans working in pewter, silver, glass, or textiles closely followed European models. The 17th-century limners limner (lĭm`nər), the work of untrained, generally anonymous artists active in the English American colonies.
..... Click the link for more information. , generally unknown by name, turned out naive but often charming portraits in the Elizabethan style, the Dutch baroque style, or the English baroque court style, depending upon the European background of both artist and patron.

The portrait painters alternated limning with coach and sign painting or other types of craftsmanship, and even in the 18th cent. it was seldom possible to earn a living by working at painting alone. Even the renowned silversmith Paul Revere Revere, Paul, 1735–1818, American silversmith and political leader in the American Revolution , b. Boston. In his father's smithy he learned to work gold and silver, and he became a leading silversmith of New England.
..... Click the link for more information. also turned his talents to commercial engraving and the manufacture of false teeth. The crafts in general followed English, Dutch, and Bavarian models, although in furniture some variations appeared in the work of talented artisans such as Samuel McIntire McIntire, Samuel (măk`əntīr'), 1757–1811, American architect and woodcarver, b. Salem, Mass.
..... Click the link for more information. and Duncan Phyfe Phyfe, Duncan (fīf), c.1768–1854, American cabinetmaker, b. Scotland. He emigrated to America c.1783, settling at Albany, N.Y.
..... Click the link for more information. .

In the first half of the 18th cent. a growing demand for portrait painting attracted such artists as John Smibert Smibert or Smybert, John (both: smī`bərt)
..... Click the link for more information. , Peter Pelham Pelham, Peter (pĕl`əm), c.1695–1751, American engraver and painter, b. England; stepfather of John Singleton Copley .
..... Click the link for more information. , and Joseph Blackburn Blackburn, Joseph, b. c.1700, d. after 1765, American portrait painter. Little is known concerning him except that from 1750 to 1765 he painted portraits (usually signed J.B.), chiefly of members of distinguished families in Boston and Portsmouth, N.H.
..... Click the link for more information. from England, Gustavus Hesselius Hesselius, Gustavus (hĕsē`lēəs), 1682–1755, American portrait painter, b. Sweden, settled c.1712 in Philadelphia.
..... Click the link for more information. from Sweden, Jeremiah Theus Theus, Jeremiah (ths, tois), c.1719–1744, American portrait painter, b.
..... Click the link for more information. from Switzerland, and Pieter Vanderlyn Vanderlyn, Pieter (pē`tər văn`dərlĭn), c.1687–1778, American colonial painter, b. Holland.
..... Click the link for more information. from Holland. Joseph Badger Badger, Joseph, 1708–65, American painter, b. Charlestown, Mass. By trade a glazier and house and sign painter, he turned his hand to portraiture. Generally uninspired, his work appears at its best in his numerous portrayals of young children, such as Jeremiah
..... Click the link for more information. , Robert Feke Feke, Robert (fēk), c.1705–c.1750, early American portrait painter, b. Oyster Bay, N.Y. He practiced in Newport, R.I.
..... Click the link for more information. , Ralph Earle Earle or Earl, Ralph, 1751–1801, American portrait and landscape painter, b. Worcester co., Mass.
..... Click the link for more information. , John Trumbull Trumbull, John, 1756–1843, American painter, b. Lebanon, Conn.; son of Gov. Jonathan Trumbull. He served in the Continental Army early in the Revolution as an aide to Washington. He resigned his commission in 1777 and devoted himself to painting.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Charles Willson Peale James Peale, 1749–1831, b. Chestertown, Md., painted portraits, particularly miniatures. There is a portrait of Washington by him in the New-York Historical Society. Another hangs in Independence Hall.
..... Click the link for more information. did not depart widely from the tradition of 18th-century English portraiture, but despite some provincial awkwardness, their work is often more vigorous. In the early work of John Singleton Copley Copley, John Singleton (kŏp`lē), 1738–1815, American portrait painter, b. Boston.
..... Click the link for more information. this vigor is combined with a great native talent.

Another 18th-century American painter, Benjamin West West, Benjamin, 1738–1820, American historical painter who worked in England. He was born in Springfield, Pa., in a house that is now a memorial museum at Swarthmore College.
..... Click the link for more information. , set up shop in London and became painter to the king and president of the Royal Academy. Although his training and practice were European, his studio became a mecca for American painters who for half a century came to study under him. His teaching of historical painting did not stand them in good stead on their return to America, where there was little demand for such work. Gilbert Stuart Stuart, Gilbert, 1755–1828, American portrait painter, b. North Kingstown, R.I., best known for his portraits of George Washington. Having shown an early talent for drawing, he became the pupil of Cosmo Alexander, a Scottish painter who was visiting America.
..... Click the link for more information. , however, emerged from his tutelage a superb portrait painter and, after gaining success in England, returned to America, where he executed a long series of famous and charming portraits and set a standard rarely surpassed in the United States.

Of all the arts, sculpture was probably the least cultivated in the colonies. Apart from the anonymous carvers of tombstones and ships' figureheads, William Rush Rush, William, 1756–1833, American sculptor, one of the earliest in the country, b. Philadelphia. His wood carvings, clay models, and figureheads were famous in their day.
..... Click the link for more information. is almost the only known native sculptor to have practiced in pre-Revolutionary and early Federalist times.

From the Revolution to the Civil War

The period from the birth of the republic to the Civil War did not see much increase in the demand for the fine arts. Such early painters as Washington Allston Allston, Washington (ôl`stən), 1779–1843, American painter and author, b. Georgetown co., S.C.
..... Click the link for more information. , Samuel F. B. Morse Morse, Samuel Finley Breese, 1791–1872, American inventor and artist, b. Charlestown, Mass., grad. Yale, 1810. He studied painting in England under Washington Allston and achieved some success.
..... Click the link for more information. , John Vanderlyn Vanderlyn, John (văn`dərlĭn), 1776–1852, American portrait and historical painter, b. Kingston, N.Y.
..... Click the link for more information. , and John Trumbull, who sought a market in America for historical painting in the neoclassical manner of Jacques-Louis David David, Jacques-Louis (zhäk-lwē` dävēd`), 1748–1825, French painter.
..... Click the link for more information. , were quickly disillusioned. Portrait painting alone provided the substantial patronage enjoyed by such men as Mather Brown Brown, Mather, 1761–1831, American portrait and historical painter, b. Boston. He studied under Benjamin West in London and continued to work in England.
..... Click the link for more information. , Henry Benbridge Benbridge, Henry, 1744–1812, American portrait painter and miniaturist, b. Philadelphia, studied in Italy and with Benjamin West in London. His portraits are characterized by technical skill and have sometimes been attributed to John Singleton Copley .
..... Click the link for more information. , Edward Savage Savage, Edward, 1761–1817, American portrait painter and engraver. He was probably self-taught, although he may have studied with Benjamin West during a brief visit to London. He at one time operated art galleries in Boston, Philadelphia, and New York City.
..... Click the link for more information. , Thomas Sully Sully, Thomas, 1783–1872, American painter, b. England. Having come to the United States as a child, he first studied with his brother Lawrence, a miniaturist, and later for a brief time with Gilbert Stuart.
..... Click the link for more information. , John Neagle Neagle, John (nē`gəl), 1796–1865, American portrait painter, b. Boston.
..... Click the link for more information. , Chester Harding Harding, Chester, 1792–1866, American portrait painter, b. Conway, Mass. He worked as an itinerant portrait painter long enough to enable him to study at the Pennsylvania Academy of Design. Later he practiced in St. Louis, Washington, D.C.
..... Click the link for more information. , and the miniaturists Edward G. Malbone Malbone, Edward Greene (mălbōn`), 1777–1807, American portrait painter and miniaturist, b. Newport, R.I.
..... Click the link for more information. and John Wesley Jarvis Jarvis, John Wesley, 1781?–1839, American portrait painter, b. England. Beginning as an engraver in Philadelphia, he early moved to New York, where he became a popular portrait painter.
..... Click the link for more information. . Their work expressed the energy and self-confidence of the builders of the new American nation.

This period also saw the gradual rise of a number of excellent genre genre (zhän`rə), in art-history terminology, a type of painting dealing with unidealized scenes and subjects of everyday life.
..... Click the link for more information. painters—Henry Inman Inman, Henry, 1801–46, American portrait, genre, and landscape painter, b. Yorkville, N.Y., studied with John Wesley Jarvis. He was a founder and first vice president of the National Academy of Design.
..... Click the link for more information. , William Sidney Mount Mount, William Sidney, 1807–68, American genre and portrait painter, b. Setauket, N.Y. His childhood was spent at Stony Brook, Long Island, the scene of many of his pictures. At 17 he was apprenticed to his elder brother, Henry, a sign and ornament painter.
..... Click the link for more information. , Richard C. Woodville Woodville, Richard Caton, 1825–55, American genre painter, b. Baltimore. He turned from medical studies to painting and in 1845 studied in Düsseldorf.
..... Click the link for more information. , David G. Blythe Blythe, David Gilmour (blīth), 1815–65, American artist, b. East Liverpool, Ohio.
..... Click the link for more information. , Eastman Johnson Johnson, Eastman, 1824–1906, American portrait and genre painter, b. Lovell, Maine. He studied with a lithographer in Boston and later in Düsseldorf, then for almost four years at The Hague, where he was greatly influenced by the 17th-century Dutch masters.
..... Click the link for more information. , and George Caleb Bingham Bingham, George Caleb, 1811–79, American genre painter and politician, b. Augusta co., Va. His family moved (1819) to Missouri, which was the site of most of Bingham's activities. In 1837 he studied for a short time at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.
..... Click the link for more information. . These were the earliest painters of the American scene. In addition, J. J. Audubon Audubon, John James (ô`dəbŏn), 1785–1851, American ornithologist, b. Les Cayes, Santo Domingo (now Haiti).
..... Click the link for more information. created an extraordinary, detailed series of paintings of American birds. It is significant that he had to go to England for recognition and publication of his work. John Quidor Quidor, John (kĭdôr`), 1801–81, American painter, b. Tappan, N.Y., studied with J. W. Jarvis.
..... Click the link for more information. painted scenes and legendary figures from the works of James Fenimore Cooper Cooper, James Fenimore, 1789–1851, American novelist, b. Burlington, N.J. He was the first important American writer to draw on the subjects and landscape of his native land in order to create a vivid myth of frontier life.
..... Click the link for more information. and Washington Irving Irving, Washington, 1783–1859, American author and diplomat, b. New York City. Irving was one of the first Americans to be recognized abroad as a man of letters, and he was a literary idol at home.
..... Click the link for more information. .

The first half of the 19th cent. witnessed development of the first school of American landscape painting. Thomas Doughty Doughty, Thomas, 1793–1856, American painter of the Hudson River school , b. Philadelphia. Although self-taught, he was one of the first American landscape painters to win widespread recognition at home and abroad.
..... Click the link for more information. and Thomas Cole Cole, Thomas, 1801–48, American landscape painter, b. England. He arrived in the United States in 1818 and moved to Ohio, where he was impressed by the beauty of the countryside. In 1825 he went to New York, where his landscape paintings began to be appreciated.
..... Click the link for more information. led the Hudson River school Hudson River school, group of American landscape painters, working from 1825 to 1875. The 19th-century romantic movements of England, Germany, and France were introduced to the United States by such writers as Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper.
..... Click the link for more information. , which was continued by Asher B. Durand Durand, Asher Brown (dy
..... Click the link for more information. , John F. Kensett Kensett, John Frederick (kĕn`sət), 1816–72, American landscape painter, of the Hudson River school , b. Cheshire, Conn.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Frederick E. Church Church, Frederick Edwin, 1826–1900, American landscape painter of the Hudson River school , b. Hartford, Conn., studied with Thomas Cole at Catskill, N.Y. He traveled and painted in North and South America and in Europe and excelled in panoramic scenes.
..... Click the link for more information. . The land and peoples west of the Mississippi were described in paintings by George Catlin Catlin, George, 1796–1872, American traveler and artist, b. Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Educated as a lawyer, he practiced in Philadelphia for two years but turned to art study and became a portrait painter in New York City. He went west c.
..... Click the link for more information. , Charles M. Russell Russell, Charles Marion, 1864–1926, American painter, b. Oak Hill, Mo. He was one of the two greatest and most popular painters of the American West (the other was Frederic Remington ).
..... Click the link for more information. , and Seth Eastman, and in panoramic landscape views by Albert Bierstadt Bierstadt, Albert (bēr`stät), 1830–1902, American painter of Western scenery, b. Germany.
..... Click the link for more information. and Thomas Moran (see under Moran, Edward Thomas Moran, 1837–1926, was an American landscape painter, illustrator, and etcher. He accompanied the exploring expeditions of Professor F. V. Hayden to the Yellowstone River (1871) and of Major J. W. Powell down the Colorado River (1873).
..... Click the link for more information. ). The work of these men showed a direct response to nature that has never ceased to be an important factor in American art. See luminism luminism (l`mĭnĭz'əm), American art movement of the 19th cent.
..... Click the link for more information. .

In addition, the characteristic American passion for objects realistically portrayed found remarkable expression in the paintings of William Harnett Harnett, William Michael (här`nət), 1848–92, American painter, b. Ireland.
..... Click the link for more information. and John F. Peto Peto, John F. (pē`tō), 1854–1907, American painter, b. Philadelphia.
..... Click the link for more information. , and earlier in the still-life works of the Peale family. The strain of primitivism, first evident in the limners, was more pronounced and popular in the early 19th cent. with works by Edward Hicks Hicks, Edward, 1780–1849, American painter and preacher, b. Bucks co., Pa. A member of the Society of Friends, he became a noted back-country preacher in the conservative group of Quakers associated with his cousin Elias Hicks .
..... Click the link for more information. and Erastus Salisbury Field Field, Erastus Salisbury, 1805–1900, American painter, b. Leverett, Mass. Field's paintings, executed in a primitive manner, included biblical and classical themes and portraits. His famous Historical Monument of the American Republic (c.
..... Click the link for more information. ; it was continued by Grandma Moses Moses, Grandma (Anna Mary Robertson Moses), 1860–1961, American painter, b. Washington co., N.Y., self-taught. She lived the arduous life of a farm wife, first in the Shenandoah Valley and later at Eagle Bridge, near Hoosick Falls, N.Y.
..... Click the link for more information. and Horace Pippin Pippin, Horace, 1888–1946, American primitive painter, b. West Chester, Pa. He worked as a porter, peddler, and warehouseman and never studied art. He was severely wounded in World War I.
..... Click the link for more information. in the 20th cent.

In sculpture portraiture provided the main source of patronage. John Frazee Frazee, John (frā`zē), 1790–1852, American pioneer sculptor, b. Rahway, N.J.
..... Click the link for more information. and Hezekiah Augur Augur, Hezekiah (ô`gər), 1791–1858, American sculptor.
..... Click the link for more information. with little training produced forceful and original work in marble and wood. Horatio Greenough Greenough, Horatio (grē`nō), 1805–52, American sculptor and writer, b. Boston, grad.
..... Click the link for more information. began the long tradition of the American sculptor trained in Italy, where he was soon followed by Thomas Crawford Crawford, Thomas, 1813–57, American sculptor, b. New York City. He was apprenticed to a wood carver and later worked for a firm of tombstone cutters. He achieved his first success with decorations for the Capitol at Washington, D.C.
..... Click the link for more information. , Hiram Powers Powers, Hiram, 1805–73, American sculptor, b. Woodstock, Vt. Having moved to Ohio, he made wax models for a Cincinnati museum. In 1835 he began his career as a sculptor, spending some time in Washington, D.C.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Harriet Hosmer Hosmer, Harriet Goodhue (hŏz`mər), 1830–1908, American sculptor, b. Watertown, Mass.
..... Click the link for more information. . The American sculptors in Italy were greatly influenced by the Danish neoclassicist A. B. Thorvaldsen Thorvaldsen or Thorwaldsen, Albert Bertel
..... Click the link for more information. . Works of great originality were produced by Clark Mills Mills, Clark, 1810–83, American sculptor, b. Onondaga co., N.Y. Self-taught in art, he designed and in 1852 cast in an experimental foundry the statue of General Jackson for Lafayette Square, Washington, D.C.
..... Click the link for more information. , Thomas Ball Ball, Thomas, 1819–1911, American sculptor, b. Charlestown, Mass.; son of a house and sign painter. Thomas Ball was also a singer of reputation, the first in the United States to sing the title role in Mendelssohn's Elijah.
..... Click the link for more information. , and particularly by William Rimmer Rimmer, William, 1816–79, American sculptor and writer, b. Liverpool, England. He was brought up in the United States and after working as a cobbler in Brockton, Mass., at the age of 30 began the study of medicine.
..... Click the link for more information. , whose untutored sculpture was enormously powerful.

After the Civil War

In painting the post–Civil War period, which was one of unprecedented patronage for the arts from government and private sources, produced works of enduring worth and striking individuality. Among the many outstanding artists of this period, James McNeill Whistler Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, 1834–1903, American painter, etcher, wit, and eccentric, b. Lowell, Mass.

Whistler was dismissed from West Point for insufficient knowledge of chemistry and from the U.S.
..... Click the link for more information. , Albert Pinkham Ryder Ryder, Albert Pinkham, 1847–1917, American painter, b. New Bedford, Mass. In 1867 his family moved to New York City. There he studied with W. E. Marshall, the engraver, and at the National Academy of Design, but he was largely self-taught.
..... Click the link for more information. , Thomas Eakins Eakins, Thomas (ā`kĭnz), 1844–1916, American painter, photographer, and sculptor, b.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Winslow Homer Homer, Winslow, 1836–1910, American landscape, marine, and genre painter. Homer was born in Boston, where he later worked as a lithographer and illustrator.
..... Click the link for more information. created works that rank among the finest achievements in American art. While they were contemporaries, these four are strikingly dissimilar. Whistler, an expatriate, cultivated a delicate art of suggestion in his oils and etchings, approaching the effects of French impressionism. Ryder produced a visionary art of profound emotional impact. Eakins painted sympathetic portraits of extraordinary psychological insight and uncompromising honesty. Homer's watercolors are among the strongest interpretations of pure landscape and seascape ever painted.

This period also saw the further development of the romantic landscape in the works of George Inness Inness, George (ĭn`ĭs), 1825–94, American landscape painter, b. Newburgh, N.Y.
..... Click the link for more information. , Alexander H. Wyant Wyant, Alexander Helwig (wī`ənt), 1836–92, American landscape painter, b. Tuscarawas co.
..... Click the link for more information. , Homer D. Martin Martin, Homer Dodge, 1836–97, American landscape painter, b. Albany, N.Y. His earlier works are in the style of the Hudson River school, but after his stay in France (1881–86) his work showed the influence of the Barbizon school, notably Corot; his style,
..... Click the link for more information. , and Ralph Blakelock Blakelock, Ralph Albert, 1847–1919, American landscape painter, b. New York City. The son of a doctor, he was educated for a medical career but abandoned it for painting, in which he was largely self-taught. His life was one of hardship.
..... Click the link for more information. . In Inness, and perhaps even more in William Morris Hunt Hunt, William Morris, 1824–79, American painter, b. Brattleboro, Vt., studied in Düsseldorf and Paris. He was greatly influenced by the Barbizon school and by J. F. Millet.
..... Click the link for more information. , the influence of the Barbizon school Barbizon school (bär'bĭzōN`, bär`bĭzŏn'), an informal school of French landscape painting that flourished c.
..... Click the link for more information. was brought to America. Although French influence had begun to supplant German, the work of the portrait painters William M. Chase Chase, William Merritt, 1849–1916, American painter, b. Williamsburg, Ind., studied in Indianapolis and in Munich under Piloty. In 1878 he began his long career as an influential teacher at the Art Students League of New York and later established his own
..... Click the link for more information. and Frank Duveneck Duveneck, Frank (dy
..... Click the link for more information. reflected contemporary currents in Munich, as the earlier genre painters had reflected the influence of artists in Düsseldorf. John La Farge La Farge, John (lə färzh), 1835–1910, American artist and writer, b. New York City.
..... Click the link for more information. 's religious murals and stained glass set a new standard for these arts.

John Singer Sargent Sargent, John Singer, 1856–1925, American painter, b. Florence, Italy, of American parents, educated in Italy, France, and Germany. In 1874 he went to Paris, where he studied under Carolus-Duran .
..... Click the link for more information. , working chiefly in England, excelled in society portraiture, and Elihu Vedder Vedder, Elihu, 1836–1923, American painter, illustrator, and author, b. New York City, studied in Paris. From 1867 his permanent residence was Rome. He often used romantic landscape as a setting for allegorical images.
..... Click the link for more information. and Edwin Abbey Abbey, Edwin Austin, 1852–1911, American illustrator and painter, b. Philadelphia, studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Employed by Harper & Brothers, he was sent to England, where he gathered materials for his illustration of Herrick's
..... Click the link for more information. in illustration. At the close of the 19th cent. and the beginning of the 20th, John Twachtman Twachtman, John Henry (twäkt`mən), 1853–1902, American landscape painter and etcher, b. Cincinnati.
..... Click the link for more information. , Childe Hassam Hassam, Childe (Frederick Childe Hassam) (chīld hăs`əm), 1859–1935, American painter and printmaker, b.
..... Click the link for more information. , Ernest Lawson Lawson, Ernest, 1873–1939, American landscape painter, b. San Francisco. He studied art in Kansas City, in New York City under Twachtman and J. Alden Weir, and in Paris. On returning to New York he joined the independent artists' group called the Eight .
..... Click the link for more information. , and Mary Cassatt Cassatt, Mary (kəsăt`), 1844–1926, American figure painter and etcher, b. Pittsburgh.
..... Click the link for more information. as well as such lesser-known American artists as Willard Metcalf (1858–1925) worked under the direct influence of French impressionism impressionism, in painting, late-19th-century French school that was generally characterized by the attempt to depict transitory visual impressions, often painted directly from nature, and by the use of pure, broken color to achieve brilliance and luminosity.
..... Click the link for more information. . Meanwhile, under the same influence, Maurice Prendergast Prendergast, Maurice Brazil, 1859–1924, American painter, b. St. John's, N.L., Canada, educated in Boston. In 1886 he worked his way to Europe on a cattle boat and studied in Paris at Julian's and at the Colarossi Academy.
..... Click the link for more information. created original, boldly colorful images of passing urban scenes. In a wholly different vein, realistic if somewhat romanticized scenes of life in the American West were painted by several artist-illustrators, the most prominent of whom were Frederick Remington Remington, Frederic, 1861–1909, American painter, sculptor, illustrator, and writer, b. Canton, N.Y., studied at the Yale School of Fine Arts and the Art Students League.
..... Click the link for more information. and C. M. Russell.

In sculpture after the Civil War there was an increased demand for commemorative work. Notable sculptors in the monumental tradition include John Quincy Adams Ward Edgar Melville Ward, 1839–1915, was a genre painter; his Coppersmith is housed in the Metropolitan Museum.

Bibliography

See A. Adams, John Quincy Adams Ward (1912).
..... Click the link for more information. and Daniel Chester French French, Daniel Chester, 1850–1931, American sculptor, b. Exeter, N.H., studied in Florence and in Boston with William Rimmer. After executing his first large work, The Minute Man
..... Click the link for more information. . The workshop of John Rogers Rogers, John, 1829–1904, American sculptor, b. Salem, Mass. Trained as an engineer, he was forced by failing eyesight to work as a machinist. He began modeling in clay as a pastime and studied sculpture in Rome for a short while.
..... Click the link for more information. produced small figures and genre groups that became popular. Later, Remington's small bronzes extended the subject matter of native realism westward to include the cowboy. Neoclassical tendencies dominated in the work of Olin Warner Warner, Olin Levi, 1844–96, American sculptor, b. Suffield, Conn. He studied art in Paris, working for a time as an assistant to J.-B. Carpeaux . He served in the Franco-Prussian War (1870) and returned to the United States in 1892, setting up a studio in New
..... Click the link for more information. and Augustus Saint-Gaudens Saint-Gaudens, Augustus (sānt-gôd`ənz), 1848–1907, American sculptor, b. Dublin, Ireland.
..... Click the link for more information. , both of whom studied in Paris.

The Twentieth Century

Among early 20th-century American sculptors Paul Bartlett Bartlett, Paul Wayland, 1865–1925. American sculptor, b. New Haven, Conn. The son of a sculptor, he lived in Paris in his boyhood and studied at the École des Beaux-Arts and under Frémiet .
..... Click the link for more information. , Karl Bitter Bitter, Karl Theodore Francis, 1867–1915, American sculptor, b. Austria. Having done some decorative modeling in Austria, Bitter soon found work when he came to the United States in 1889.
..... Click the link for more information. , Frederick MacMonnies MacMonnies, Frederick William (məkmŏn`ēz), 1863–1937, American sculptor and painter, b. Brooklyn, N.Y.
..... Click the link for more information. , George Barnard Barnard, George Grey, 1863–1938, American sculptor, b. Bellefonte, Pa. He studied engraving, then sculpture, first at the Art Institute of Chicago, then at the École des Beaux-Arts, Paris.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Lorado Taft Taft, Lorado (lərā`dō), 1860–1936, American sculptor, lecturer, and writer on art, b. Elmwood, Ill.
..... Click the link for more information. exhibited a continuing conflict between naturalistic and idealized modes of representation. A significant cultural development of the era was the founding and expansion of American museums, whose collections were important to the art student and public alike. Under the impetus of new techniques of reproduction, the art of illustration flourished. The work of Edwin Abbey, Arthur Frost Frost, Arthur Burdett, 1851–1928, American illustrator and cartoonist, b. Philadelphia; pupil of Thomas Eakins at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. He worked chiefly in New York City and became one of the most popular illustrators of his time.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Howard Pyle Pyle, Howard, 1853–1911, American illustrator and writer, b. Wilmington, Del., studied at the Art Students League, New York City. His illustrations appeared regularly in Harper's Weekly, and in many other American magazines.
..... Click the link for more information. was outstanding, appearing in Harper's and numerous other illustrated magazines and books.

Most importantly, in the 20th cent. American art turned to the exploitation of new techniques and new modes of expression. The functional design aesthetic of the machine strongly influenced all the arts. Meanwhile, the development of photography photography, still, science and art of making permanent images on light-sensitive materials.

See also photographic processing ; motion picture photography ; motion pictures .
..... Click the link for more information. forced a reevaluation of the representational nature of painting, and the formal and expressive capacities of modern European art opened fresh fields for the American artist.

Early in the century a vigorous movement toward realism in subject matter and freedom in technique was headed by Robert Henri Henri, Robert (hĕn`rī), 1865–1929, American painter and teacher, b. Cincinnati as Robert Henry Cozad.
..... Click the link for more information. , John Sloan Sloan, John, 1871–1951, American painter and etcher, b. Lock Haven, Pa. He studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts and worked for 12 years as an illustrator on the Philadelphia Inquirer and Philadelphia Press.
..... Click the link for more information. , and George Luks Luks, George Benjamin (l
..... Click the link for more information. . With William Glackens Glackens, William James, 1870–1938, American landscape and genre painter and illustrator, b. Philadelphia. An illustrator for Philadelphia and New York City newspapers and magazines for many years, Glackens first exhibited his paintings with the Eight and
..... Click the link for more information. , Everett Shinn Shinn, Everett, 1876–1953, American painter and magazine illustrator, b. Woodstown, N.J., studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Moving to New York City, Shinn created a series of murals for Stanford White that led to numerous commissions.
..... Click the link for more information. , and others, they formed the Eight Eight, the, group of American artists in New York City, formed in 1908 to exhibit paintings. They were men of widely different tendencies, held together mainly by their common opposition to academism.
..... Click the link for more information. , a group also known as the "Ash-can School." They sought to communicate something of the reality of everyday life through art. At the same time, Alfred Stieglitz Stieglitz, Alfred (stēg`lĭts), 1864–1946, American photographer, editor, and art exhibitor, b. Hoboken, N.J.
..... Click the link for more information. offered America early glimpses of fauve and cubist work from Europe and exhibited abstract paintings by such Americans as Max Weber Weber, Max (mäks wĕb`ər), 1881–1961, American painter, b. Russia. At 10 he accompanied his family to Brooklyn, N.Y.
..... Click the link for more information. , Marsden Hartley Hartley, Marsden, 1877–1943, American painter, b. Lewiston, Maine. He was educated in Cleveland, but early in his career (1899) went to New York City, where he studied under William Merritt Chase and at the National Academy of Design.
..... Click the link for more information. , and John Marin Marin, John (măr`ĭn), 1870–1953, American landscape painter, b. Rutherford, N.J.
..... Click the link for more information. at his revolutionary 291 Gallery for contemporary photographs and paintings.

The full force of European modernism was presented to shocked Americans in the famous Armory Show Armory Show, international exhibition of modern art held in 1913 at the 69th-regiment armory in New York City. It was a sensational introduction of modern art into the United States.
..... Click the link for more information. of 1913 in New York City, which was organized by such American artists as Arthur B. Davies Davies, Arthur Bowen (dā`vĭs, –vēz), 1862–1928, American painter and lithographer, b. Utica, N.Y.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Walt Kuhn Kuhn, Walt, 1880–1949, American painter, b. New York City. At the age of 19 he worked as a cartoonist in San Francisco, contributing later to Life magazine. After travel and study in Europe he devoted himself largely to oil painting.
..... Click the link for more information. . Under the influence of this exhibition, the early work of such Americans as Joseph Stella Stella, Joseph, 1877–1946, American painter, b. Italy, emigrated to the United States in 1896. He studied at the Art Students League of New York City with William Chase and later in Italy and Paris.
..... Click the link for more information. , Yasuo Kuniyoshi Kuniyoshi, Yasuo (yäs-ō` k
..... Click the link for more information. , Charles Demuth Demuth, Charles (dā`mth), 1883–1935, American watercolor painter, b.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Stuart Davis Davis, Stuart, 1894–1964, American painter, b. Philadelphia, studied with Robert Henri in New York City. At the age of 19 he did drawings and covers for The Masses and exhibited in the Armory Show.
..... Click the link for more information. revealed new abstract tendencies. George Bellows Bellows, George Wesley, 1882–1925, American painter, draftsman, and lithographer, b. Columbus, Ohio; son of an architect and builder. In his senior year he left Ohio State Univ. to study painting under Robert Henri in New York City.
..... Click the link for more information. and Rockwell Kent Kent, Rockwell, 1882–1971, American painter, muralist, wood engraver, lithographer, book and magazine illustrator, and writer, b. Tarrytown, N.Y. Kent studied with William Merritt Chase and Robert Henri .
..... Click the link for more information. remained popular realists, and Edward Hopper Hopper, Edward, 1882–1967, American painter and engraver, b. Nyack, N.Y., studied in New York City with Robert Henri. Hopper lived in France for a year but was little influenced by the artistic currents there.
..... Click the link for more information. and Charles Burchfield Burchfield, Charles, 1893–1967, American painter, b. Ashtabula, Ohio, studied at the Cleveland School of Art. Living at first in Ohio, then moving (1925) to upstate New York, he worked (1921–20) as a wallpaper designer.
..... Click the link for more information. developed a more poignant and intensely personal realism. John Marin caught the imposing breadth of nature in his watercolors, while Georgia O'Keeffe O'Keeffe, Georgia (ōkēf`), 1887–1986, American painter, b. Sun Prairie, Wis.
..... Click the link for more information. and Charles Sheeler Sheeler, Charles, 1883–1965, American painter and photographer, b. Philadelphia, studied at the School of Industrial Art there and later at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts under William M. Chase. With Chase he made two visits to Europe to study art.
..... Click the link for more information. combined realism with varying degrees of precise formal design.

Meanwhile, Peter Blume Blume, Peter (blm), 1906–92, American painter, b. Russia.
..... Click the link for more information. , Ivan Albright Albright, Ivan Le Lorraine (ôl`brīt), 1897–1983, American painter, b. North Harvey, Ill.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Edwin Dickinson Dickinson, Edwin Walter, 1891–1978, American painter, b. Seneca Falls, N.Y. He studied in New York City with William Merritt Chase , and spent most of his life on Cape Cod.
..... Click the link for more information. developed differing and complex realist and surrealist styles. A chauvinistic espousal of the American scene flourished under Thomas Hart Benton Benton, Thomas Hart, 1889–1975, American regionalist painter, b. Neosho, Mo.; grandnephew of Sen. Thomas Hart Benton and son of Congressman Maecenas E. Benton.
..... Click the link for more information. and Grant Wood Wood, Grant, 1891–1942, American painter, studied at the Art Institute of Chicago and in Paris. In Munich in 1928 he was decisively influenced by German and Flemish primitive painting.
..... Click the link for more information. in the early 1930s, while the same decade and the 1940s saw the rise of a more socially conscious realistic art in the work of Ben Shahn Shahn, Ben (Benjamin Shahn), 1898–1969, American painter and graphic artist, b. Lithuania. Shahn emigrated to the United States in 1906. After working in lithography until 1930, his style crystallized in a series of 23 paintings concerning the Sacco-Vanzetti
..... Click the link for more information. , Philip Evergood Evergood, Philip, 1901–73, American painter and etcher, b. New York City. His original name was Philip Blashki. He was educated at Eton and Cambridge and studied art in New York City and Paris.
..... Click the link for more information. , Reginald Marsh Marsh, Reginald, 1898–1954, American painter and illustrator, b. Paris. Both his parents were artists. After their return to the United States, he studied at Yale (B.A., 1920).
..... Click the link for more information. , Jacob Lawrence Gwendolyn Knight, 1913–2005, an American painter and sculptor, b. Bridgetown, Barbados.

Bibliography

See P. T. Nesbett and M. DuBois, The Complete Jacob Lawrence (2000); P. T.
..... Click the link for more information. , Isabel Bishop Bishop, Isabel, 1902–88, American painter, b. Cincinnati, Ohio. Influenced by the New York City painters of the 1930s, Bishop produced numerous paintings of working women.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Raphael and Moses Soyer Raphael Soyer, 1899–1987, and

Moses Soyer, 1899–1974, b. Borisoglebsk. They settled in New York City making its inhabitants the chief subject of their paintings.
..... Click the link for more information. . Several years later this social awareness was given bitter expression in the paintings of Jack Levine Levine, Jack (ləvīn`), 1915–, American painter, b. Boston. Levine began his career with the Federal Arts Project.
..... Click the link for more information. .

Government sponsorship of the arts during the years of the Great Depression under the Dept. of the Treasury's Section of Fine Arts and the Federal Art Project of the Works Progress Administration enabled many artists to continue working, embellishing many public buildings with murals and creating smaller works for display in public institutions. The Farm Security Administration supported the photographic documentation of rural America, a project that employed a number of outstanding photographers and resulted in a moving portrait of America in crisis. World War II brought an influx of European painters who were to influence the course of American art. They included Joan Miró Miró, Joan (zhōän` mērō`), 1893–1983, Spanish surrealist painter.
..... Click the link for more information. , Salvador Dalí Dalí, Salvador (sälväthōr` dälē`, dä`lē), 1904–89, Spanish painter.
..... Click the link for more information. , Max Ernst Ernst, Max (mäks ĕrnst) 1891–1976, German painter.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Yves Tanguy Tanguy, Yves (ēv täNgē`), 1900–1955, French surrealist painter.
..... Click the link for more information. .

A continuing realistic tradition in American sculpture produced works in traditional styles during the 1920s and 30s. Among these are Gutzon Borglum Solon Hannibal Borglum, 1868–1922, was also a sculptor, noted especially for his portrayal of horses, cattle, Native Americans, and cowboys.

Bibliography

See R. J. Casey and M. Borglum, Give the Man Room: the Story of Gutzon Borglum (1952); W.
..... Click the link for more information. 's enormous Mt. Rushmore monument, the classicizing figures of Paul Manship Manship, Paul Howard, 1885–1966, American sculptor, b. St. Paul, Minn., studied at St. Paul Institute of Arts, Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and the American Academy at Rome. He often went to classical mythology for his subjects.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Mahonri Young Young, Mahonri Mackintosh (məhŏn`rē), 1877–1957, American sculptor, painter, and etcher, b.
..... Click the link for more information. 's naturalistic athletes and laborers. Nonetheless, the dominant tendency of national sculpture was toward abstract design and expressive form, a trend to which William Zorach Zorach, William (zŏr`äk), 1887–1966, American sculptor, b. Lithuania.
..... Click the link for more information. , Gaston Lachaise Lachaise, Gaston (gästôN` läshĕz`), 1882–1935, American sculptor, b. Paris.
..... Click the link for more information. , and, later, Leonard Baskin Baskin, Leonard, 1922–2000, American sculptor, graphic artist, and teacher, b. New Brunswick, N.J. In sculptural and graphic works that are figurative in style, Baskin's images of a corrupt, bloated humanity often have an element of sardonic humor.
..... Click the link for more information. contributed figurative work. Alexander Calder Calder, Alexander (kôl`dər), 1898–1976, American sculptor, b.
..... Click the link for more information. pioneered in the use of mobile welded metal forms, adding motion as a new dimension in sculpture.

In painting from 1945–60 the work of all but the most intensive realists, such as Andrew Wyeth Wyeth, Andrew Newell (wī`əth), 1917–, American painter, b. Chadds Ford, Pa.
..... Click the link for more information. , tended increasingly toward abstraction. Such artists as Arshile Gorky Gorky, Arshile (är`shīl gôr`kē), c.1900–48, American painter, b. Armenia as Vosdanig Adoian.
..... Click the link for more information. , Mark Rothko Rothko, Mark (rŏth`kō), 1903–70, American painter, b. Russia. Rothko emigrated to the United States in 1913.
..... Click the link for more information. , Morris Graves, Mark Tobey Tobey, Mark, 1890–1976, American painter, b. Centerville, Wis. An avid traveler, Tobey visited China and Japan in 1934. He then developed his celebrated "white writing," in which he attempted to symbolize the human spirit by applying principles of Eastern
..... Click the link for more information. , and Helen Frankenthaler Frankenthaler, Helen (frăngk`ənthŏlər), 1928–, American painter, b. New York City.
..... Click the link for more information. developed and employed abstraction in works of highly personal symbolic content, while painters such as Jackson Pollock Pollock, Jackson, 1912–56, American painter, b. Cody, Wyo. He studied (1929–31) in New York City, mainly under Thomas Hart Benton , but he was more strongly influenced by A. P. Ryder and the Mexican muralists, especially Siqueiros .
..... Click the link for more information. , Willem de Kooning de Kooning, Willem (də k`nĭng), 1904–97, American painter, b.
..... Click the link for more information. , Adolph Gottlieb Gottlieb, Adolph, 1903–74, American painter, b. New York City. Gottlieb studied under John Sloan and Robert Henri. In the 1940s he created pictographs which were stylized, primitive symbols set in a gridlike pattern.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Franz Kline Kline, Franz, 1910–62, American painter, b. Wilkes-Barre, Pa. He studied (1937–38) in England, then settled in New York City. From the early 1950s, Kline exhibited large canvases of dynamically painted black-and-white grids.
..... Click the link for more information. created a bold and unique imagery that made American painting a dominant influence in world art (see abstract expressionism abstract expressionism, movement of abstract painting that emerged in New York City during the mid-1940s and attained singular prominence in American art in the following decade; also called action painting and the New York school.
..... Click the link for more information. ). In sculpture of the 1940s and 50s the free play of abstract forms in light and space and the use of new materials were vigorously exploited by David Smith Smith, David, 1906–65, American sculptor, b. Decatur, Ind. He arrived in New York City in 1926 and studied painting at the Art Students League. In the 1930s he began experimenting with sculpture and after 1935 he worked primarily in this medium.
..... Click the link for more information. , Theodore Roszak Roszak, Theodore (rô`shäk), 1907–, American sculptor, b. Poland.
..... Click the link for more information. , Herbert Ferber Ferber, Herbert, 1906–91, American sculptor, b. New York City, grad. Columbia (D.D.S., 1930). His original name was Herbert Ferber Silvers. Turning from early massive figures in wood and stone, he developed large, spatially inventive abstractions in brazed
..... Click the link for more information. , Isamu Noguchi Noguchi, Isamu (ēsä`m nōg
..... Click the link for more information. , and Richard Lippold Lippold, Richard (lĭp`ōld), 1915–2002, American sculptor, engineer, and designer, b. Milwaukee.
..... Click the link for more information. .

The pop art pop art, a movement that first emerged in Great Britain at the end of the 1950s as a reaction against the seriousness of abstract expressionism . British and American pop artists employed a common imagery found in comic strips, soup cans, and Coke bottles to express
..... Click the link for more information. movement of the 1950s and 60s utilized an aesthetic based on the mass-produced artifacts of urban culture, rejecting the concepts of beauty and ugliness. Its major practitioners included Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein Lichtenstein, Roy (lĭk`tənstīn'), 1923–97, American painter, b. New York City.
..... Click the link for more information. , Jasper Johns Johns, Jasper, 1930–, American artist, b. Augusta, Ga. Influenced by Marcel Duchamp in the mid-1950s, Johns attempted to transform common objects into art by placing them in an art context.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Robert Rauschenberg Rauschenberg, Robert (rou`shənbûrg'), 1925–, American painter, b. Port Arthur, Tex.
..... Click the link for more information. . Other nonobjective styles of painting and sculpture flourished concurrently with pop art during the 1960s, including op art op art (ŏp), movement that became prominent in the United States and Europe in the mid-1960s.
..... Click the link for more information. , minimalism, and color-field painting color-field painting, abstract art movement that originated in the 1960s. Coming after the abstract expressionism of the 1950s, color-field painting represents a sharp change from the earlier movement.
..... Click the link for more information. .

No single school or style has dominated American art in the latter half of the 20th cent., as artists have sought numerous avenues of individual expression. Sculptural abstraction was developed in individual directions by John Chamberlain Chamberlain, John, 1927–, American sculptor, b. Rochester, Ind. In the late 1950s, Chamberlain became known for his welded assemblages of smashed automobile parts and colored scrap metal.
..... Click the link for more information. , Eva Hess, Carl Andre Andre, Carl (än`drā), 1935–, American sculptor, b. Quincy, Mass.
..... Click the link for more information. , Louise Nevelson Nevelson, Louise, 1900–1988, American sculptor, b. Kiev, Russia. Using odd pieces of wood, found objects, cast metal and other materials, Nevelson constructed huge walls or enclosed box arrangements of complex and rhythmic abstract shapes.
..... Click the link for more information. , and Tony Smith; minimalist sculpture in particular was developed by Donald Judd Judd, Donald Clarence, 1928–94, American artist, b. Excelsior Springs, Mo. His sculpture, allied with the minimalist school of the late 1960s (see minimalism ; modern art ), has the appearance of industrial fabrication.
..... Click the link for more information. . Postmodern developments in painting and sculpture include photorealism photorealism, international art movement of the late 1960s and 70s that stressed the precise rendering of subject matter, often taken from actual photographs or painted with the aid of slides.
..... Click the link for more information. , conceptualism, neoexpressionism, assemblage, land art land art or earthworks, art form developed in the late 1960s and early 70s by Robert Smithson , Robert Morris , Michael Heizer, and others, in which the artist employs the elements of nature in situ or rearranges the landscape with earthmoving
..... Click the link for more information. , and performance and process art (see performance art performance art, multimedia art form originating in the 1970s in which performance is the dominant mode of expression. Perfomance art may incorporate such elements as instrumental or electronic music, song, dance, television, film, sculpture, spoken dialogue, and
..... Click the link for more information. ; see also contemporary art contemporary art, the art of the late 20th cent. and early 21st cent., both an outgrowth and a rejection of modern art . As the force and vigor of abstract expressionism diminished, new artistic movements and styles arose during the 1960s and 70s to challenge and
..... Click the link for more information. ).

The ascendancy of women and minority artists since the 1970s has been marked by essentialism, the assertion of the artist's distinctive heritage or social circumstance, favoring a point of view typically presented as outside the mainstream of contemporary art. Imagery suggestive of female anatomy and sexuality has been central to the works of Judy Chicago Chicago, Judy (Judy Gerowitz Chicago) (gĕr`əwĭts', shĭkä`gō, –kô`–)
..... Click the link for more information. ; an awareness of stereotypes of African-American women has informed drawings and installations by Adrian Piper. Jenny Holzer in her work has made extensive use of the printed word.

No single trend can be said to have dominated American art in the closing decades of the 20th cent. However, in general, American art in the 1980s and 90s saw an increased occurrence of words as statement and image as well as a widened use of photography, collage, and a variety of other media. Also characterizing these decades was eclecticism in both materials and imagery, combinations of painting and sculpture in single works, a trend toward use of the ironic, a resurgance of realism, and a heightened use of "borrowings" from other periods and works of art.

Bibliography

See A. T. Gardner, Yankee Stonecutters (1945); L. Lippard, Pop Art (1967); J. K. Howat, The Hudson River and Its Painters (1972); M. Brown, American Art (1979); D. Ashton, American Art Since 1945 (1982); E. Lucie-Smith, American Art Now (1985); C. Copeland and J. M. De La Croix, Encyclopedia of Contemporary American Art (1987); B. Haskell, The American Century, Art and Culture 1900–1950.