Lutheranism (redirected from Finnish priests)

Lutheranism, branch of Protestantism that arose as a result of the Reformation, whose religious faith is based on the principles of Martin Luther, although he opposed such a designation. When Luther realized that the reforms he desired could not be carried out within the Roman Catholic Church, he devoted himself to questions of faith rather than form in the new Evangelical churches that developed. His was the conservative attitude, as distinguished from the views of the Reformed (Calvinistic) communions.

Doctrine

Luther's major departures from Roman Catholic doctrine rest on these beliefs: the Scriptures contain the one necessary guide to truth, and it is the right of the individual to reach God through them with responsibility to God alone; salvation comes through faith alone, available to humanity through the redeeming work of Christ; and the sacraments are valid only as aids to faith. The principal statements of faith are found in Luther's two catechisms, the unaltered Augsburg Confession, the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, the Schmalkald Articles, and the Formula of Concord. These are all included in the Book of Concord (1580). Baptism was necessary for spiritual regeneration, but no form was specified. The sacrament of the Lord's Supper was retained, but the doctrine of transubstantiation was rejected.

As to the manner of worship, Luther chose to retain altars and vestments; he prepared an order of liturgical service, but with the understanding that no church was bound to follow any set order. There is today no uniform liturgy belonging to all branches of the Lutheran body; characteristically, however, an important place is given to preaching and congregational singing.

Because of Luther's conservatism and the political conditions of 16th-century Germany, the Lutheran churches originated as territorial churches, subject to the local princes. The local organization still has the most important place in church polity, but there is a growing tendency toward a more organized church.

Lutheranism has traditionally stressed education, and there are many Lutheran schools, colleges, and seminaries throughout the world. Since the mid-18th cent., Lutherans have had a program of Christian service for women called the Deaconess movement. The world membership of Lutherans is about 61 million.

History

In Europe

The history of Lutheranism in Europe is generally divided into several distinct periods. The first period, from 1520 to 1580, was one of doctrinal consolidation. Doctrinal disputes, especially that concerning antinomianism, began during Luther's lifetime, but became more heated after his death, when the controversy raised by Andreas Osiander over the meaning of Christ's death on the cross shook the whole German Evangelical Church. The opposing factions were the strict Lutherans, who refused any compromise with Rome or Calvinism, and the moderate wing, headed by Philip Melanchthon, who strove for reconciliation.

The period from 1580 to 1700 was called "the age of orthodoxy." Almost exclusive emphasis was put on right doctrine, and faith was understood as intellectual assent. During the early years of the 17th cent., Germany was racked by the Thirty Years War, and Lutheranism lost much of its territory. Religious boundaries were stabilized by the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which maintained that with slight exceptions the religion of the prince was to be the religion of his subjects. The latter part of the century saw a reaction against the prevailing orthodoxy in the form of Pietism.

In 1817, Frederick William III of Prussia sought to merge forcibly the Lutheran and Reformed churches of Prussia into a single organization called the Prussian Union. Some conservative Lutherans opposed this move and withdrew from the union to found the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Prussia as a free church. After World War I, the churches were no longer governed by state laws but still received state support.

In the unification of German culture under the Nazi regime, the church did not escape. In 1933 a national organization, the German Evangelical Church, was formed. Under the direction of the Nazi party it tried to develop a national racial church, with pure Aryan blood as a prerequisite for membership. A revolt against this movement, led by Martin Niemoeller, resulted in the founding of the Confessing Church and the formation of the Confessional Synod, which issued (1934) its declaration rejecting the Reich's interference with the church.

The end of the war saw the formation of the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKID), which is made up of members of both Lutheran and Reformed churches, and the United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany (VELKD), which functions as an expressly Lutheran constituency within the EKID. German churches have also cooperated wholeheartedly in the formation of the Lutheran World Federation (1947) and the World Council of Churches. The Lutheran Church is the established state church of Denmark, Iceland, Norway, and Finland; Sweden disestablished its Lutheran state church in 2000.

In North America

In North America, Lutherans from the Netherlands were among the settlers on Manhattan island in 1625. A congregation was formed there in 1648, but it was antedated by one established (1638) by Swedish settlers at Fort Christina (Wilmington) on the Delaware River. On nearby Tinicum Island the first Lutheran church building in the country was dedicated in 1646. Early in the 18th cent. exiles from the Palatinate established German Lutheran churches in New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. The Salzburger migration to Georgia (1734) introduced Lutheranism in the South.

In the 18th cent., organization of the churches was begun by Heinrich Melchior Mühlenberg, who brought about the formation (1748) in Pennsylvania of the first synod in the country. The Synod of New York and adjoining states followed (1786); that of North Carolina was created in 1803. With the settlement of the Midwest, the West, and the Northwest, many small synods were formed by Norwegians, Danes, Finns, and other national groups.

Once there were about 150 distinct Lutheran bodies, but in 1918 many of the autonomous Lutheran bodies merged into the United Lutheran Church of America. The Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America, formed in 1872, broke up in 1960, when the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (with 411,000 members, now the third largest Lutheran group in the United States) withdrew. The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, with 2.6 million members, was also formerly part of the Evangelical Lutheran Synodical Conference of North America. It is now the second largest group of Lutherans. The American Lutheran Church, formed in 1961, and the Lutheran Church in America, formed in 1962, united to become the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America in 1988, now the largest Lutheran group, with 5.2 million members. These groups comprise about 95% of North American Lutherans. In an ecumenical spirit, the Evangelical Lutheran's Churchwide Assembly agreed (1997) on a full communion with the Presbyterian Church (USA), the United Church of Christ, and the Reformed Church in America, and it reached a similar agreement with the Episcopal Church and the Moravian Church in 1999.

Bibliography

See A. R. Wentz, The Lutheran Church in American History (2d ed. rev. 1933); L. P. Qualben, The Lutheran Church in Colonial America (1940); E. Vermeil et al., The Churches in Germany (1949); J. Pelikan, From Luther to Kierkegaard (1950, repr. 1963); A. K. Swihart, Luther and the Lutheran Church (1960); J. H. Bodensieck, ed., The Encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church (3 vol., 1965); E. C. Nelson, Lutheranism in North America (rev. ed. 1980); E. W. Gritsch, Fortress Introduction to Lutheranism (1993).

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Lutheranism

Protestant movement founded on the principles of Martin Luther. Lutheranism arose at the start of the Reformation, after Luther posted his Ninety-five Theses in Wittenberg. It spread through much of Germany and into Scandinavia, where it was established by law. It was brought to the New World by the colonists of New Netherland and New Sweden and spread through the U.S. Middle Atlantic states in the 18th century and the Midwest in the 19th century. Its doctrines are contained in the catechisms of Luther and in the Augsburg Confession. Lutheran doctrine emphasizes salvation by faith alone and the primacy of the Bible as the church's authority. The Lutheran ministry is one of service—not special status—and is described as the priesthood of all believers. Lutherans accept two sacraments (baptism and the Eucharist) and believe in predestination to salvation. The Lutheran World Federation is based in Geneva. See also Pietism.

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Lutheranism 

one of the principal movements in Protestantism; it arose in Germany during the Reformation in the 16th century and was based on the teachings of Luther and his followers, including F. Melanchthon. Lutheranism spread to Scandinavia and to some other countries in the 16th century and later to a number of non-European countries, including the USA.

All of the main tenets of Protestantism were first formulated in Lutheranism, including the thesis of “justification by faith alone”—that is, without the mediating role of the clergy in the “salvation” of the believer—and the primacy of the Holy Scriptures. However, Lutheranism, allying itself with the power of the princes, implemented these teachings less consistently than bourgeois Calvinism. The Lutheran churches in the German Lutheran principalities were headed by the princes; in Scandinavia they were headed by the kings.

Rejecting the complex church hierarchy (headed by the pope), which was characteristic of the Catholic Church, as well as monasticism and the worship of saints, Lutheranism retained from Catholicism all that did not directly contradict the Holy Scriptures, such as the altar, cross, organ, and religious paintings (not icons). The two main sacraments were retained—baptism (carried out by sprinkling water over the infant) and communion. (The Catholic dogma of the sacrament of the Eucharist involved the transubstantiation, or transformation, of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ and was replaced in Lutheranism by a similar teaching of consubstantiation, according to which the body and blood of Christ were mysteriously “present” in communion.) The rights of the church parish in Lutheranism are restricted. Supreme power is held by the bishops and archbishops, but their supremacy over rank-and-file believers and pastors, who head the Lutheran parishes, is only administrative, since there is in Lutheranism, in principle, no opposition between the clergy and laity, and every believer can, in principle, perform the service. In addition to the Holy Scriptures (the Bible), Lutheranism is based on the Book of Concord (1580), compiled from the Augsburg confession, Luther’s Apology, the Greater and Lesser Catechisms, and some other theological works.

Lutheranism is the largest branch of Protestantism and had approximately 75 million adherents in 1970 (approximately one-third of all Protestants), broken up into numerous independent churches, usually known as Evangelical Lutheran. The greatest number of Lutherans (approximately 37 million) live in the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic (GDR). Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, and Iceland are Lutheran; there are approximately 20 million Lutherans in these countries, and the Lutheran churches are state churches. There are nine independent Lutheran churches with approximately 9 million believers in the USA. In the socialist countries, in addition to the GDR, there are Lutheran churches in Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and the USSR (the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Estonia and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia, both headed by archbishops).

The Lutheran World Federation, founded in 1947, unites 82 Lutheran churches in 48 countries (1970). The Lutheran churches are members of the World Council of Churches, founded in 1948.

REFERENCES

Chanyshev, A. N. Protestantizm. Moscow, 1969.
Vimmsaare, K. A. “O religioznoi ideologii sovremennoi liuteranskoi tserkvi.” In Kritika religioznoi ideologii. Moscow, 1961.
Lutheran Churches of the World. Minneapolis, 1957.

A. N. CHANYSHEV