..... Click the link for more information. and occupies space. Matter is sometimes called koinomatter (Gr. koinos=common) to distinguish it from antimatter, or matter composed of antiparticles antimatter, composed of atoms made up of antiprotons and antineutrons in a nucleus surrounded by positrons. A very simple type of "atom" incorporating antiparticles is positronium, a brief pairing of a positron and an electron that may occur before their annihilation.
..... Click the link for more information. .
The Properties of Matter
The general properties of matter result from its relationship with mass and space. Because of its mass, all matter has inertia inertia (ĭnûr`shə), in physics, the resistance of a body to any alteration in its state of motion , i.e.
..... Click the link for more information. (the mass being the measure of its inertia) and weight weight, measure of the force of gravity on a body (see gravitation ). Since the weights of different bodies at the same location are proportional to their masses, weight is often used as a measure of mass .
..... Click the link for more information. , if it is in a gravitational field (see gravitation gravitation, the attractive force existing between any two particles of matter .
The Law of Universal Gravitation
Since the gravitational force is experienced by all matter in the universe, from the largest galaxies down to the smallest particles, it
..... Click the link for more information. ). Because it occupies space, all matter has volume and impenetrability, since two objects cannot occupy the same space simultaneously.
The special properties of matter, on the other hand, depend on internal structure and thus differ from one form of matter, i.e., one substance, to another. Such properties include ductility ductility, ability of a metal to plastically deform without breaking or fracturing, with the cohesion between the molecules remaining sufficient to hold them together (see adhesion and cohesion ). Ductility is important in wire drawing and sheet stamping.
..... Click the link for more information. , elasticity elasticity, the ability of a body to resist a distorting influence or stress and to return to its original size and shape when the stress is removed. All solids are elastic for small enough deformations or strains, but if the stress exceeds a certain amount known as
..... Click the link for more information. , hardness hardness, property of matter commonly described as the resistance of a substance to being scratched by another substance. The degree of hardness is relative, different substances being compared with one another.
..... Click the link for more information. , malleability malleability, property of a metal describing the ease with which it can be hammered, forged, pressed, or rolled into thin sheets. Metals vary in this respect; pure gold is the most malleable. Silver, copper, aluminum, lead, tin, zinc, and iron are also very malleable.
..... Click the link for more information. , porosity (ability to permit another substance to flow through it), and tenacity (resistance to being pulled apart).
The States of Matter
Matter is ordinarily observed in three different states, or phases (see states of matter states of matter, forms of matter differing in several properties because of differences in the motions and forces of the molecules (or atoms, ions, or elementary particles) of which they are composed.
..... Click the link for more information. ), although scientists distinguish three additional states. Matter in the solid state has both a definite volume and a definite shape; matter in the liquid state has a definite volume but no definite shape, assuming the shape of whatever container it is placed in; matter in the gaseous state has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape and expands to fill any container. The properties of a plasma plasma, in physics, fully ionized gas of low density, containing approximately equal numbers of positive and negative ions (see electron and ion ). It is electrically conductive and is affected by magnetic fields.
..... Click the link for more information. , or extremely hot, ionized gas, are sufficiently different from those of a gas at ordinary temperatures for scientists to consider them to be the fourth state of matter. So too are the properties of the Bose-Einstein and fermionic condensates condensate, matter in the form of a gas of atoms, molecules, or elementary particles that have been so chilled that their motion is virtually halted and as a consequence they lose their separate identities and merge into a single entity.
..... Click the link for more information. , which exist only at temperatures approximating absolute zero (−273.15°C;), and they are considered the fifth and sixth states of matter respectively.
Early Theories of Matter
In ancient times various theories were suggested about the nature of matter. Empedocles held that all matter is made up of four "elements"—earth, air, fire, and water. Leucippus and his pupil Democritus proposed an atomic basis of matter, believing that all matter is built up from tiny particles differing in size and shape. Anaxagoras, however, rejected any theory in which matter is viewed as composed of smaller constituents, whether atoms or elements, and held instead that matter is continuous throughout, being entirely of a single substance.
Modern Theory of Matter
The modern theory of matter dates from the work of John Dalton at the beginning of the 19th cent. The atom atom [Gr.,=uncuttable (indivisible)], basic unit of matter ; more properly, the smallest unit of a chemical element having the properties of that element.
Structure of the Atom
..... Click the link for more information. is considered the basic unit of any element, and atoms may combine chemically to form molecules, the molecule molecule (mŏl`əky
l) [New Lat.
..... Click the link for more information. being the smallest unit of any substance that possesses the properties of that substance. An element element, in chemistry, a substance that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances by chemical means. A substance such as a compound can be decomposed into its constituent elements by means of a chemical reaction, but no further simplification can be achieved.
..... Click the link for more information. in modern theory is any substance all of whose atoms are the same (i.e., have the same atomic number), while a compound is composed of different types of atoms together in molecules.
Physical and Chemical Changes
The difference between a mixture and a compound helps to illustrate the difference between a physical change and a chemical change. Different atoms may also be present together in a mixture, but in a mixture they are not bound together chemically as they are in a compound. In a physical change, such as a change of state (e.g., from solid to liquid), the substance as a whole changes, but its underlying structure remains the same; water is still composed of molecules containing two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom whether it is in the form of ice, liquid water, or steam. In a chemical change, however, the substance participates in a chemical reaction chemical reaction, process by which one or more substances may be transformed into one or more new substances. Energy is released or is absorbed, but no loss in total molecular weight occurs.
..... Click the link for more information. , with a consequent reordering of its atoms. As a result, it becomes a different substance with a different set of properties.
Many of the physical properties and much of the behavior of matter can be understood without detailed assumptions about the structure of atoms and molecules. For example, the kinetic-molecular theory of gases kinetic-molecular theory of gases, physical theory that explains the behavior of gases on the basis of the following assumptions: (1) Any gas is composed of a very large number of very tiny particles called molecules; (2) The molecules are very far apart compared to
..... Click the link for more information. provides a good explanation of the nature of temperature temperature, measure of the relative warmth or coolness of an object. Temperature is measured by means of a thermometer or other instrument having a scale calibrated in units called degrees. The size of a degree depends on the particular temperature scale being used.
..... Click the link for more information. and the basis of the various gas laws gas laws, physical laws describing the behavior of a gas under various conditions of pressure, volume, and temperature. Experimental results indicate that all real gases behave in approximately the same manner, having their volume reduced by about the same proportion
..... Click the link for more information. and also gives insight into the different states of matter. Substances in different states vary in the strength of the forces between their molecules, with intermolecular forces being strongest in solids and weakest in gases. The force holding like molecules together is called cohesion, while that between unlike molecules is called adhesion (see adhesion and cohesion adhesion and cohesion, attractive forces between material bodies. A distinction is usually made between an adhesive force, which acts to hold two separate bodies together (or to stick one body to another) and a cohesive force, which acts to hold together the like or
..... Click the link for more information. ). Among the phenomena resulting from intermolecular forces are surface tension surface tension, tendency of liquids to reduce their exposed surface to the smallest possible area. A drop of water, for example, tends to assume the shape of a sphere.
..... Click the link for more information. and capillarity capillarity or capillary action, phenomenon in which the surface of a liquid is observed to be elevated or depressed where it comes into contact with a solid.
..... Click the link for more information. . An even larger number of aspects of matter can be understood when the nature and structure of the atom are taken into account. The quantum theory quantum theory, modern physical theory concerned with the emission and absorption of energy by matter and with the motion of material particles; the quantum theory and the theory of relativity together form the theoretical basis of modern physics.
..... Click the link for more information. has provided the key to understanding the atom, and most basic problems relating to the atom have been solved.
The Relationship of Matter and Energy
The atomic theory of matter does not answer the question of the basic nature of matter. It is now known that matter and energy are intimately related. According to the law of mass-energy equivalence, developed by Albert Einstein as part of his theory of relativity relativity, physical theory, introduced by Albert Einstein, that discards the concept of absolute motion and instead treats only relative motion between two systems or frames of reference.
..... Click the link for more information. , a quantity of matter of mass m possesses an intrinsic rest mass energy E given by E = mc2, where c is the speed of light. This equivalence is dramatically demonstrated in the phenomena of nuclear fission and fusion (see nuclear energy nuclear energy, the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom and released through fission, fusion, or radioactivity . In these processes a small amount of mass is converted to energy according to the relationship E = mc2, where E
..... Click the link for more information. ; nucleus nucleus, in physics, the extremely dense central core of an atom .
The Nature of the Nucleus
Composition
Atomic nuclei are composed of two types of particles, protons and neutrons, which are collectively known as nucleons.
..... Click the link for more information. ), in which a small amount of matter is converted to a rather large amount of energy. The converse reaction, the conversion of energy to matter, has been observed frequently in the creation of many new elementary particles. The study of elementary particles has not solved the question of the nature of matter but only shifted it to a smaller scale.
Bibliography
See V. H. Booth, Elements of Physical Science: The Nature of Matter and Energy (1970); G. Amaldi, The Nature of Matter: Physical Theory from Thales to Fermi (1982).
matter
Material substance that constitutes the observable universe and, together with energy, forms the basis of all objective phenomena. Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. Every physical entity can be described, physically and mathematically, in terms of interrelated quantities of mass, inertia, and gravitation. Matter in bulk occurs in several states; the most familiar are the gaseous (see gas), liquid, and solid states (plasmas, glasses, and various others are less clearly defined), each with characteristic properties. According to Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity, matter and energy are equivalent and interconvertible (see conservation law).
matter
Matter (physics)
A term that traditionally refers to the substance of which all bodies consist. Matter in classical mechanics is closely identified with mass. Modern analyses distinguish two types of mass: inertial mass, by which matter retains its state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion in the absence of external forces; and gravitational mass, by which a body exerts forces of attraction on other bodies, and by which it reacts to those forces. Expressed in appropriate units, these two properties are numerically equal—a purely experimental fact, unexplained by theory. Albert Einstein made the equality of inertial and gravitational mass a fundamental principle (principle of equivalence), as one of the two postulates of the theory of general relativity. See Gravitation, Inertia, Mass, Relativity, Weight
In quantum mechanics, mass is only one among many properties (quantum numbers) that a particle can have, for example, electric charge, spin, and parity. The nearest quantum-mechanical analogs of traditional matter are fermions, having half-integral values of spin. Forces are mediated by exchange of bosons, particles having integral spins. Fermions correspond to classical matter in exhibiting impenetrability (a consequence of the exclusion principle), but the correspondence is only rough. For example, fermions can also be exchanged in interactions (a photon and an electron can exchange an electron), and they also exhibit wavelike (nonlocalized) behavior. States of classical matter-particles were given by their positions and momenta, but in quantum mechanics it is impossible to assign simultaneous precise positions and momenta to particles. See Exclusion principle, Quantum electrodynamics, Quantum mechanics, Quantum statistics
The primary constituents of ordinary matter are baryonic, consisting of quarks. However it is possible that as much as 99% (by mass) of the matter in the universe consists of nonbaryonic “dark matter” whose nature is yet to be discovered. See Baryon, Quarks
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