s`täf yng), 1875–1961, Swiss psychiatrist, founder of analytical psychology. The son of a country pastor, he studied at Basel (1895–1900) and Zürich (M.D., 1902). After a stint at the University Psychiatric Clinic in Zürich, Jung worked (1902) under Eugen Bleuler Bleuler, Eugen , 1857–1939, Swiss psychiatrist. He taught (1898–1927) at the Univ. of Zürich, serving concurrently as director of Zürich's Burghölzi Asylum...... Click the link for more information. at the Burgholzli Clinic. He wrote valuable papers, but more important was his book on the psychology of dementia praecox (1906), which led to a meeting (1907) with Sigmund Freud Freud, Sigmund , 1856–1939, Austrian psychiatrist, founder of psychoanalysis. Born in Moravia, he lived most of his life in Vienna, receiving his medical degree from the Univ. of Vienna in 1881.
..... Click the link for more information. . Finding that their theoretical positions had much in common, the two formed a close relationship for a number of years: Jung edited the Jahrbuch für psychologische und psychopathologische Forschungen and was made (1911) president of the International Psychoanalytic Society. However, a formal break with Freud came with the publication of Jung's revolutionary work The Psychology of the Unconscious (1912), which disagreed with the Freudian emphasis on sexual trauma as the basis for all neurosis neurosis, in psychiatry, a broad category of psychological disturbance, encompassing various mild forms of mental disorder. Until fairly recently, the term neurosis was broadly employed in contrast with psychosis, which denoted much more severe, debilitating mental
..... Click the link for more information. and with the literal interpretation of the Oedipus complex Oedipus complex, Freudian term, drawn from the myth of Oedipus, designating attraction on the part of the child toward the parent of the opposite sex and rivalry and hostility toward the parent of its own.
..... Click the link for more information. .
Prior to World War II, Jung became president of the Nazi-dominated International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy. As the Nazis forced their Aryan ideology on the association, Jung became increasingly uncomfortable and resigned. In addition, in 1943 he aided the Office of Strategic Services by analyzing Nazi leaders for the United States. Questions have arisen, however, regarding his alleged racial theories of the unconscious. While Jung's work is of little importance in contemporary psychoanalytic practice, it remains widely influential in such fields as religious studies and literary criticism.
Jungian psychology is based on psychic totality and psychic energism. He postulated two dimensions in the unconscious—the personal (repressed or forgotten content of an individual's mental and material life) and the archetypes (images, patterns, and symbols that are often seen in dreams and fantasies and appear as themes in mythology and religion) of a collective unconscious (those acts and mental patterns shared by members of a culture or universally by all human beings). In Psychological Types (1921) Jung elucidated the concepts of extroversion and introversion extroversion and introversion, terms introduced into psychology by Carl Jung to identify opposite psychological types.
..... Click the link for more information. for the study of personality types. He also developed the theory of synchronicity, the coincidence of causally unrelated events having identical or similar meaning. Additionally, he was the first person to introduce into the language such terms and concepts as "anima" and "New Age." For Jung the most important and lifelong task imposed upon any person is fulfillment through the process of individuation, the achievement of harmony of conscious and unconscious, which makes a person one and whole. Jung's many works are compiled in H. Read, M. Fordham, and G. Adler, ed., Collected Works of C. G. Jung (20 vol., 1953–79).
Bibliography
See his autobiographical Memories, Dreams, Reflections (1963, repr. 1989); his letters, ed. by G. Adler (2 vol., 1973); his correspondence with Sigmund Freud, ed. by R. Manheim and R. F. Hull (1974); biographies by F. McLynn (1997), R. Hayman (2001), and D. Bair (2003); studies by J. Jacobi (rev. ed. 1973), M. A. Mattoon (1985), A. Samuels (1986), and M. Pauson (1989); M. Stein, ed., Jungian Analysis (1982); R. Noll, The Jung Cult (1994) and The Aryan Christ (1997).
Jung, Carl Gustav
Born July 26, 1875, in Kesswil, near Basel; died June 6, 1961, in Küsnacht, near Zürich. Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist; founder of one of the schools of depth psychology—“analytical psychology.”
In 1900, Jung began working with E. Bleuler in Zürich; he developed the technique of free association, which he turned into one of the chief methods of psychiatric analysis. From 1907 to 1912 he worked in very close collaboration with S. Freud, and from 1911 to 1914 he served as the first president of the International Psychoanalytic Society. The break between Jung and Freud resulted from Jung’s revision of the basic tenets of psychoanalysis, including his interpretation of libido as psychic energy in general, his rejection of the sexual etiology of neuroses, and his concept of the psyche as a closed autonomous system that functions in accordance with the principle of compensation.
In Symbols and Transformations of the Libido (1912), Jung studied the spontaneous appearance of folkloric and mythological themes in his patients’ dreams. On the basis of these findings, he postulated the existence in the human psyche of a deeper layer in addition to the individual unconscious—namely, the collective unconscious, which Jung viewed as the reflection of the experience of previous generations imprinted in the structures of the brain. The collective unconscious consists of universal prototypes—or archetypes, such as the image of Mother Earth, the hero, the wise old man, and the demon—whose dynamics form the basis of myths, of artistic symbolism, and of dreams.
Jung’s archetypes are not accessible to direct perception; they are recognized through their projection onto external objects. The archetype of the self (das Selbst) represents the potential center of the personality, in contrast to the ego as the center of consciousness. The goal of the personality’s coming-into-being (that is, self-realization, or individuation) is to integrate the contents of the collective unconscious.
Psychotherapy, according to Jung, must aim primarily at the restoration of broken connections between the various levels of the psyche; in traditional cultures, the psyche’s dynamic equilibrium is achieved through myths, ceremonies, and rituals, which are used as means to activate the archetypes. In his overall treatment of the nature of archetypes and the collective unconscious, Jung combines positivist ideas with metaphysical notions bordering on occultism—for example, the notion of the psyche as a kind of impersonal substance.
Jung developed a typology of personality (Psychological Types, 1921; Russian translation, 1924) based on identification of the dominant psychic function—thinking, feeling, intuition, or sensation—and dominant orientation toward the external or internal world (extrovert and introvert personality types).
Jung greatly influenced the comparative study of religions, mythology, and folklore (as exemplified by the work of K. Kerényi and M. Eliade and by the international yearbook on cultural questions Eranos-Jahrbuch, published in Zürich from 1933), as well as aesthetics and literary and artistic criticism (such as that of H. Read in Great Britain). The Jung Institute was founded in Zürich in 1948. The Journal of Analytical Psychology has been published in London since 1955, and the International Association of Analytical Psychology was founded in 1958.
WORKS
Gesammelte Werke, 17 vols. Zürich-Stuttgart, 1958–.Posthume Autobiographie, 4th ed. Zürich, 1967.
In Russian translation:
Psikhoz i ego soderzhanie. St. Petersburg, 1909.
REFERENCES
Averintsev, S. S. “‘Analiticheskaia psikhologiia’ K. G. Iunga i zakonomernosti tvorcheskoi fantazii.” Voprosy literatury, 1970, no. 3.Fordham, F. An Introduction to Jung’s Psychology. London [1953].
Jacobi, J. Die Psychologie von C. G. Jung, 5th ed. Zürich-Stuttgart, 1967.
Meier, C. A. Experiment und Symbol: Arbeiten zur komplexen Psychologie C. G. Jungs. Zürich, 1975.
D. N. LIALIKOV
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