Napoleon
French
Napoléon Bonaparte orig. Italian
Napoleone Buonaparte
Napoleon in His Study, by Jacques-Louis David, 1812; in the National …
(credit: Courtesy of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., the Samuel H. Kress Collection; photograph, Giraudon/Art Resource, New York)
(born Aug. 15, 1769, Ajaccio, Corsica—died May 5, 1821, St. Helena Island) French general and emperor (1804–15). Born to parents of Italian ancestry, he was educated in France and became an army officer in 1785. He fought in the
French Revolutionary Wars and was promoted to brigadier general in 1793. After victories against the Austrians in northern Italy, he negotiated the Treaty of
Campo Formio (1797). He attempted to conquer Egypt (1798–99) but was defeated by the British under
Horatio Nelson in the Battle of the
Nile. The Coup of 18–19
Brumaire brought him to power in 1799, and he installed a military dictatorship, with himself as First Consul. He introduced numerous reforms in government, including the
Napoleonic Code, and reconstructed the French education system. He negotiated the
Concordat of 1801 with the pope. After victory against the Austrians at the Battle of
Marengo (1800), he embarked on the
Napoleonic Wars. The formation of coalitions of European countries against him led Napoleon to declare France a hereditary empire and to crown himself emperor in 1804. He won his greatest military victory at the Battle of
Austerlitz against Austria and Russia in 1805. He defeated Prussia at the Battles of
Jena and Auerstedt (1806) and Russia at the Battle of
Friedland (1807). He then imposed the Treaty of
Tilsit on Russia, ending the fourth coalition of countries against France. Despite his loss to Britain at the Battle of
Trafalgar, he sought to weaken British commerce and established the
Continental System of port blockades. He consolidated his European empire until 1810 but became embroiled in the
Peninsular War (1808–14). He led the French army into Austria and defeated the Austrians at the Battle of
Wagram (1809), signing the Treaty of Vienna. To enforce the Treaty of Tilsit, he led an army of about 600,000 into Russia in 1812, winning the Battle of
Borodino, but was forced to retreat from Moscow with disastrous losses. His army greatly weakened, he was met by a strong coalition of allied powers, who defeated him at the Battle of
Leipzig (1813). After Paris was taken by the allied coalition, Napoleon was forced to abdicate in 1814 and was exiled to the island of Elba. In 1815 he mustered a force and returned to France to reestablish himself as emperor for the
Hundred Days, but he was decisively defeated at the Battle of
Waterloo. He was sent into exile on the remote island of St. Helena, where he died six years later. One of the most celebrated figures in history, Napoleon revolutionized military organization and training and brought about reforms that permanently influenced civil institutions in France and throughout Europe.
Napoleon
(1769–1821) vanquished most of Europe. [Fr. Hist.: Harvey, 570]
)