mining (redirected from Miners)

mining, extraction of solid mineral resources from the earth. These resources include ores, which contain commercially valuable amounts of metals, such as iron and aluminum; precious stones, such as diamonds; building stones, such as granite; and solid fuels, such as coal and oil shale. The search for and discovery of mineral deposits is called prospecting, or exploration. When a mineral deposit is found, it is studied to determine if it can be mined profitably. If so, the deposit can be worked or extracted by a variety of mining methods.

Surface Mining Methods

Strip mining (see coal mining), open-pit (or open-cut) mining, and quarrying are the most common mining methods that start from the earth's surface and maintain exposure to the surface throughout the extraction period. The excavation usually has stepped, or benched, side slopes and can reach depths as low as 1,500 ft (460 m). In strip mining, the soft overburden, or waste soil, overlying the ore or coal is easily removed. In open-pit mining the barren rock material over the ore body normally requires drilling and blasting to break it up for removal. A typical mining cycle consists of drilling holes into the rock in a pattern, loading the holes with explosives, or blasting agents, and blasting the rock in order to break it into a size suitable for loading and hauling to the mill, concentrator, or treatment plant. There the metals or other desired substances are extracted from the rocks (see metallurgy).

Underground Mining Methods

Under certain circumstances surface mining can become prohibitively expensive and underground mining may be considered. A major factor in the decision to operate by underground mining rather than surface mining is the strip ratio, or the number of units of waste material in a surface mine that must be removed in order to extract one unit of ore. Once this ratio becomes large, surface mining is no longer attractive. The objective of underground mining is to extract the ore below the surface of the earth safely, economically, and with as little waste as possible. The entry from the surface to an underground mine may be through an adit, or horizontal tunnel, a shaft (see shaft sinking), or vertical tunnel, or a declined shaft. A typical underground mine has a number of roughly horizontal levels at various depths below the surface, and these spread out from the access to the surface. Ore is mined in stopes, or rooms. Material left in place to support the ceiling is called a pillar and can sometimes be recovered afterward. A vertical internal connection between two levels of a mine is called a winze if it was made by driving downward and a raise if it was made by driving upward.

A modern underground mine is a highly mechanized operation requiring little work with pick and shovel. Rubber-tired vehicles, rail haulage, and multiple drill units are commonplace. In order to protect miners and their equipment much attention is paid to mine safety. Mine ventilation provides fresh air underground and at the same time removes noxious gases as well as dangerous dusts that might cause lung disease, e.g., silicosis. Roof support is accomplished with timber, concrete, or steel supports or, most commonly, with roof bolts, which are long steel rods used to bind the exposed roof surface to the rock behind it.

Other Methods

Although surface and underground mining are the most common techniques, there are a number of other mining methods. In solution mining the valuable mineral is brought into a liquid solution by some chemical or bacteria. The resultant liquid is pumped to the surface, where the mineral or metal is taken out of solution by precipitation or by ion exchange (e.g., the Frasch process). In glory-hole mining a steep-sided, funnel-shaped surface excavation is connected to tunnels below it. Rocks blasted off the sides of the excavation fall into the tunnels, from which they are then removed. Gopher mining is an old-fashioned method still used in very small mines. Narrow, small holes are driven in order to extract the ore (e.g., gold) as cheaply as possible. In placer mining no excavation is involved; instead, gravel, sand, or talus (rock debris) is removed from deposits by hand, hydraulic nozzles, or dredging. The ore is separated from the waste by panning or sluicing.

Environmental and Legal Concerns

Associated with mining are many environmental concerns. Large-scale excavation is often necessary to extract a small amount of ore. Ore extraction disrupts the topsoil and can displace local animals and plants, and sometimes native human populations. Runoff can contaminate nearby water sources with pollutants such as the mercury and sodium cyanide used in gold mining. Waste materials and smelters can cause sulfurous dust clouds that result in acid rain. Abandoned strip mines have often been used as unregulated landfills for hazardous wastes. Several pieces of legislation in the United States, the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977) and the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, or Superfund Act (1986), address these issues, but enforcement has been difficult.

Another act that affects mining in the United States is the 1872 Mining Act. This now controversial act, which was originally designed to encourage settlement of the West, allows mining companies to purchase land for $2.50 per acre. In the late 20th cent., despite many efforts at reform, the law and the $2.50 per acre price still stood, despite the fact that the ore contained in the land could be worth billions of dollars.

Bibliography

See R. Peele and J. A. Church, ed., Mining Engineer's Handbook (3d ed.; 2 vol., 1941); R. S. Lewis and G. B. Clark, Elements of Mining (3d ed. 1964); E. Pfleider, ed., Surface Mining (1968); G. C. Amstutz, Glossary of Mining Geology (1971); C. Gregory, A Concise History of Mining (1981); M. K. Tolba (United Nations Environment Programme), Saving Our Planet (1991); A. Warhurst, Environmental Degradation from Mining and Mineral Processing in Developing Countries (1994).

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mining

Excavation of materials from the Earth's crust, including those of organic origin, such as coal and petroleum. Modern mining is costly and complicated. First, a mineral vein that can likely produce enough of the desired substance to justify the cost of extraction must be located. Then the size of the vein or deposit is determined, and mining engineers decide the best way to mine it. Most of the world's yearly mineral production is extracted by surface mining, which includes open-pit mining, strip mining, and quarrying. For ore bodies that lie a considerable distance below the surface, underground mining must be considered. In both techniques, excavating and extracting mineral substances involve costly combinations of drilling, blasting, hoisting, and hauling, as well as measures for health and safety and reduction of environmental impact.

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mining

See data mining.

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mining [′mīn·iŋ]

(mining engineering)

The technique and business of mineral discovery and exploitation.

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Mining

The taking of minerals from the earth, including production from surface waters and from wells. Usually the oil and gas industries are regarded as separate from the mining industry. The term mining industry commonly includes such functions as exploration, mineral separation, hydrometallurgy, electrolytic reduction, and smelting and refining, even though these are not actually mining operations. See Hydrometallurgy, Metallurgy, Ore dressing

Mining is broadly divided into three basic methods: opencast, underground, and fluid mining. Opencast mining is done either from pits or gouged-out slopes or by surface mining, which involves extraction from a series of successive parallel trenches. Dredging is a type of surface mining, with digging done from barges. Hydraulic mining uses jets of water to excavate material.

Underground mining involves extraction from beneath the surface, from depths as great as 10,000 ft (3 km), by any of several methods.

Fluid mining is extraction from natural brines, lakes, oceans, or underground waters; from solutions made by dissolving underground materials and pumping to the surface; from underground oil or gas pools; by melting underground material with hot water and pumping to the surface; or by driving material from well to well by gas drive, water drive, or combustion. Most fluid mining is done by wells. In one experimental type of well mining, insoluble material is washed loose by underground jets and the slurry is pumped to the surface. See Petroleum engineering

The activities of the mining industry begin with exploration, which, since accidental discoveries or surficially exposed deposits are no longer sufficient, has become a complicated, expensive, and highly technical task. After suitable deposits have been found and their worth proved, development, or preparation for mining, is necessary. For opencast mining, this involves stripping off overburden; and for underground mining, the sinking of shafts, driving of adits and various other underground openings, and providing for drainage and ventilation. For mining by wells, drilling must be done. For all these cases, equipment must be provided for such purposes as blasthole drilling, blasting, loading, transporting, hoisting, power transmission, pumping, ventilation, storage, or casing and connecting wells. Mines may ship their crude products directly to reduction plants, refiners, or consumers, but commonly, concentrating mills are provided to separate useful from useless (gangue) minerals.

A unique feature of mining is the circumstance that mineral deposits undergoing extraction are “wasting assets,” meaning that they are not renewable as are other natural resources. This depletability of mineral deposits requires that mining companies must periodically find new deposits and constantly improve their technology in order to stay in business. Depletion means that the supplies of any particular mineral, except those derived from oceanic brine, must be drawn from ever-lower-grade sources.