..... Click the link for more information. , the Absolute, or any unifying principle of life. Mysticism is inseparably linked with religion. Because of the nature of mysticism, firsthand objective studies of it are virtually impossible, and students must confine themselves to the accounts of mystics, autobiographical and biographical, or, as the mystics themselves say, they must experience for themselves. The terms mystic and mysticism are used very broadly in English, being extended to mean magic, occultism, or the esoteric.
The Nature of Mysticism
There are certain common fallacies current about mysticism: that mystics are not "practical" and that they are revolutionary; on the contrary, many of the greatest mystics have been both intensely active as well as submissive to authority of whatever sort. Nor is the "solitary thinker" necessarily, or even usually, a mystic. There is no accepted explanation of mysticism, and few psychologists have interested themselves in its practice. William James James, William, 1842–1910, American philosopher, b. New York City, M.D. Harvard, 1869; son of the Swedenborgian theologian Henry James and brother of the novelist Henry James .
..... Click the link for more information. studied the nature of mysticism but reached no conclusion that satisfied him. A significant philosophical evaluation of mysticism was made by Henri Bergson Bergson, Henri (äNrē` bĕrgsôN`), 1859–1941, French philosopher.
..... Click the link for more information. .
There are two general tendencies in the speculation of mystics—to regard God as outside the soul, which rises to its God by successive stages, or to regard God as dwelling within the soul and to be found by delving deeper into one's own reality. The idea of transcendence, as held most firmly by mystics, is the kernel of the ancient mystical system, Neoplatonism Neoplatonism (nē'ōplā`tənĭzəm), ancient mystical philosophy based on the doctrines of Plato .
..... Click the link for more information. , and of Gnosticism Gnosticism (nŏs`tĭsĭzəm), dualistic religious and philosophical movement of the late Hellenistic and early Christian eras.
..... Click the link for more information. . Their explanation of the connection between God and humans by emanation is epoch-making in the philosophy of contemplation. Among those who think of God, or the Supreme Reality, as being within the soul are the Quakers (see Friends, Religious Society of Friends, Religious Society of, religious body originating in England in the middle of the 17th cent. under George Fox . The members are commonly called Quakers, originally a term of derision.
..... Click the link for more information. ) and the adherents of Vedanta Vedanta (vĭdän`tə, –dăn`–), one of the six classical systems of Indian philosophy.
..... Click the link for more information. .
The language of mysticism is always difficult and usually symbolic. This is readily seen in the Song of Songs in the Old Testament, in the book of Revelation in the New Testament, and in the writings of William Blake. Mystics, especially those of the Roman Catholic and the Islamic traditions, have made use of a terminology borrowed from ordinary human love. A conventional analysis is as follows: The soul undergoes a purification (the purgative way), which leads to a feeling of illumination and greater love of God (the illuminative way); after a period the soul may be said to enter into mystical union with God (the unitive way), which begins with the consciousness that God is present to the soul; the soul progresses through a time of quiet and an ecstatic state to a final perfect state of union with God (spiritual marriage). Late in this process there is an experience (the dark night of the soul) wherein the contemplative finds himself completely deserted by God, by hope, and, indeed, even by the power to pray; it lasts sometimes for years.
Visions, voices, ecstasies may accompany any or none of the states of contemplation before the final union. It is because of these external and nonessential manifestations that the erroneous idea has arisen that all enthusiastic and nonintellectual religious movements are necessarily mystical. The positive convictions of the mystic arise from the fact that they are based on what he or she must regard as objective reality directly perceived.
Great Mystics and Mystical Traditions
Among the principal contemplatives of Christianity from post-Apostolic times to the Reformation are Clement of Alexandria Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens), d. c.215, Greek theologian. Born in Athens, he traveled widely and was converted to Christianity. He studied and taught at the catechetical school in Alexandria until the persecution of 202. Origen was his pupil there.
..... Click the link for more information. , Origen Origen (ôr`ĭjĭn), 185?–254?, Christian philosopher and scholar.
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Augustine Augustine, Saint (ô`gəstēn, –tĭn; ôgŭs`tĭn), Lat.
..... Click the link for more information. , the false Dionysius the Areopagite Dionysius the Areopagite, Saint (dīənĭsh`ēəs, ârēŏp`əjīt), fl. 1st cent. A.D.
..... Click the link for more information. , Cassian Cassian, John (kăsh`ən)
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Gregory I Gregory I, Saint (Saint Gregory the Great), c.540–604, pope (590–604), a Roman; successor of Pelagius II. A Doctor of the Church, he was distinguished for his spiritual and temporal leadership. His feast is celebrated on Mar. 12.
..... Click the link for more information. , Erigena Erigena, John Scotus (skō`təs ĕrĭj`ĭnə) [Lat. Scotus=Irish, Erigena=born in Ireland], c.
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Peter Damian Peter Damian, Saint (dā`mēən), Ital. Pietro Damiani, 1007?–1072, Italian reformer, b. Ravenna.
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Anselm Anselm, Saint (ăn`sĕlm), 1033?–1109, prelate in Normandy and England, archbishop of Canterbury, Doctor of the Church (1720), b.
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Bernard of Clairvaux Bernard of Clairvaux, Saint (klrvō`), 1090?–1153, French churchman, mystic, Doctor of the Church.
..... Click the link for more information. , Hildegard of Bingen Hildegard of Bingen (hĭl`dəgärth', bĭng`ən)
..... Click the link for more information. , Joachim of Fiore Joachim of Fiore (jō`əkĭm), c.1132–1202, Italian Cistercian monk.
..... Click the link for more information. , Richard of Saint Victor Richard of Saint Victor, d. 1173, Scottish monk and mystic, prior of the Abbey of St. Victor, Paris. His principal importance is in the history of mystical theology, in which he is a successor to Hugh of Saint Victor .
..... Click the link for more information. , Hugh of Saint Victor Hugh of Saint Victor, 1096–1141, French or German philosopher and theologian, a canon regular of the monastery of St. Victor, Paris, from c.1115. In 1133 he was made head of the monastery school, which became under him one of the principal centers of learning
..... Click the link for more information. , Hadewijch Hadewijch (hä`dəvīkh), fl. early 13th cent., Dutch mystical poet, a nun.
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Gertrude, St. Francis Francis, Saint, or Saint Francis of Assisi (əsē`zē)
..... Click the link for more information. , Jacopone da Todi Jacopone da Todi (yäkōpô`nā dä tô`dē)
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Bonaventure 1)). His later mystical works bring the teachings of St. Bernard of Clairvaux and Hugh of Saint Victor to full flower. He emphasized the total dependence of all things upon God, and he wrote guides to mystic contemplation. He also wrote the official and much-translated life of St.
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas, Saint (əkwī`nəs) [Lat.
..... Click the link for more information. , Ramon Lull Lull, Ramón (rämōn` l
..... Click the link for more information. , Dante Dante Alighieri (dăn`tē, Ital. dän`tā älēgyĕ`rē), 1265–1321, Italian poet, b. Florence.
..... Click the link for more information. , Eckhart Eckhart, Meister (mīs`tər ĕk`härt) (Johannes Eckhardt), c.1260–c.1328, German mystical theologian, b.
..... Click the link for more information. , Tauler Tauler, Johannes (yōhän`əs tou`lər), c.1300–1361, German mystic. He was a Dominican.
..... Click the link for more information. , Suso Suso, Heinrich (hīn`rĭkh z
`zō), c.
..... Click the link for more information. , Ruysbroeck Ruysbroeck, John, Dutch Jan van Ruusbroec (yän vän rois`br
..... Click the link for more information. , Groote Groote, Gerard or Geert (gā`rärt, gārt`, grō`tə)
..... Click the link for more information. , Thomas à Kempis Thomas à Kempis (kĕm`pĭs), b. 1379 or 1380, d. 1471, German monk, traditional author of The Imitation of Christ, b.
..... Click the link for more information. , Nicholas of Cusa Nicholas of Cusa (Nicolaus Cusanus), 1401?–1464, German humanist, scientist, statesman, and philosopher, from 1448 cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. The son of a fisherman, Nicholas was educated at Deventer, Heidelberg, Padua, Rome, and Cologne.
..... Click the link for more information. , Rolle of Hampole Rolle of Hampole, Richard (rōl), c.1300–c.1349, English religious writer, a Yorkshire hermit.
..... Click the link for more information. , Walter Hilton Hilton, Walter, d. 1396, English religious writer, an Austin canon of Thurgarton, Nottinghamshire. His spiritual treatise The Scale of Perfection (ed. by Evelyn Underhill, 1923) is a general manual for holy living.
..... Click the link for more information. , Juliana of Norwich Juliana of Norwich (nôr`ĭch), d. c.
..... Click the link for more information. , Margery Kempe Kempe, Margery (kĕmp), d. 1438 or afterward, English religious writer, b. King's Lynn.
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Bridget of Sweden Bridget of Sweden, Saint, c.1300–1373, Swedish nun, one of the great saints of Scandinavia. She was a noblewoman at court and the mother of eight children. After her husband's death she founded (1346) the Order of the Most Holy Savior (the Brigettines).
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Catherine of Siena Catherine of Siena, Saint (sēĕn`ə)
..... Click the link for more information. , Gerson Gerson, John (Jean Charlier de Gerson) (gûr`sən; zhäN shärlyā` də zhârsôN`)
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Bernardine of Siena Bernardine of Siena, Saint (bûr`nərdĭn, sēĕn`ə), 1380–1444, Italian preacher.
..... Click the link for more information. , and St. Joan of Arc Joan of Arc, Fr. Jeanne D'Arc (zhän därk), 1412?–31, French saint and national heroine, called the Maid of Orléans; daughter of a farmer of Domrémy on the border of Champagne and Lorraine.
..... Click the link for more information. . The Catholic tradition was continued by St. Ignatius of Loyola Ignatius of Loyola, Saint (ĭgnā`shəs, loiyō`lə)
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Theresa Theresa or Teresa, Saint (Theresa of Ávila)
..... Click the link for more information. of Ávila, St. John of the Cross John of the Cross, Saint, Span. Juan de la Cruz, 1542–91, Spanish mystic and poet, Doctor of the Church. His name was originally Juan de Yepes. He was a founder of the Discalced Carmelites and a close friend of St.
..... Click the link for more information. , St. Francis de Sales Francis de Sales, Saint, 1567–1622, French Roman Catholic preacher, Doctor of the Church, and key figure in the Counter Reformation in France. He was a member of an aristocratic family of Savoy and was trained for the law, but he entered (1593) the priesthood
..... Click the link for more information. , and St. Theresa Theresa or Teresa, Saint (Theresa of Lisieux), 1873–97, French Carmelite nun, one of the most widely loved saints of the Roman Catholic Church, b. Alençon.
..... Click the link for more information. of Lisieux. Orders that have given their name to types of mysticism are Carmelites Carmelites (kär`məlīts), Roman Catholic order of mendicant friars.
..... Click the link for more information. , Carthusians Carthusians (kärth
..... Click the link for more information. , and Cistercians Cistercians (sĭstr`shənz), monks of a Roman Catholic religious order founded (1098) by St.
..... Click the link for more information. .
Among great Protestant mystics are Jakob Boehme Boehme or Böhme, Jakob (bē`mə, Ger.
..... Click the link for more information. and George Fox Fox, George, 1624–91, English religious leader, founder of the Society of Friends , b. Fenny Drayton in Leicestershire. As a boy he was apprenticed to a shoemaker and wool dealer.
..... Click the link for more information. , founder of Quakerism, the foremost Protestant mystical movement. In the 17th and 18th cent. much literature of the contemplative life was written by the metaphysical poets metaphysical poets, name given to a group of English lyric poets of the 17th cent. The term was first used by Samuel Johnson (1744). The hallmark of their poetry is the metaphysical conceit (a figure of speech that employs unusual and paradoxical images), a reliance
..... Click the link for more information. and by Henry More More, Henry, 1614–87, English philosopher, one of the foremost representatives of the school of Cambridge Platonists . His writings emphasized the mystical and theosophic phases of that philosophy, and as he grew older mysticism dominated his writings.
..... Click the link for more information. , William Law Law, William, 1686–1761, English clergyman, noted for his controversial, devotional, and mystical writings. One of the nonjurors , Law was deprived of his fellowship in Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and lost all chances for advancement in the church.
..... Click the link for more information. , and others. Extremes in post-Reformation mysticism are seen in Jansenism (see under Jansen, Cornelis Jansen, Cornelis (kôrnā`lĭs yän`sən), 1585–1638, Dutch Roman Catholic theologian. He studied at the Univ.
..... Click the link for more information. ) and in quietism quietism, a heretical form of religious mysticism founded by Miguel de Molinos, a 17th-century Spanish priest. Molinism, or quietism, developed within the Roman Catholic Church in Spain and spread especially to France, where its most influential exponent was Madame
..... Click the link for more information. ; and Emanuel Swedenborg Swedenborg, Emanuel (swēd`ənbôrg; āmä`n
..... Click the link for more information. may be regarded as a Protestant mystic. Also included in the mystic tradition were the Hermetic philosophers and the Alchemists.
In Judaism the mystical tradition represented by the kabbalah kabbalah or cabala (both: kăb`ələ) [Heb.
..... Click the link for more information. was continued in the modern Hasidism Hasidism or Chassidism (both: hăs`ĭdĭz'əm, khă–) [Heb.
..... Click the link for more information. . For Islamic mysticism, see Sufism Sufism (s
..... Click the link for more information. ; al-Ghazali Ghazali, al- (ăl-găzä`lē), 1058–1111, Islamic theologian, philosopher, and mystic.
..... Click the link for more information. ; Farid ad-Din Attar Farid ad-Din Attar (färēd` äd-dēn ät-tär`), 1142?–1220?, b.
..... Click the link for more information. ; Jalal ad-Din Rumi Rumi, Jalal ad-Din (jäläl` ĕd-dēn` r
..... Click the link for more information. ; Muin ad-Din Hasan Chishti Chishti, Muin ad-Din Hasan (m
..... Click the link for more information. ; Hafiz Hafiz (häfēz`) [Arab.,=one who has memorized the Qur'an], 1319–1389?, Persian lyric poet, b. Shiraz.
..... Click the link for more information. ; Jami Jami (jä`mē), 1414–92, Persian poet, b. Jam, near Herat. His full name was Nur ad-Din Abd ar-Rahman Jami.
..... Click the link for more information. ; Sadi Sadi or Saadi (both: sä`dē), Persian poet, 1184–1291. b. Shiraz.
..... Click the link for more information. . For Hindu mysticism, see Vedanta; yoga yoga (yō`gə) [Skt.,=union], general term for spiritual disciplines in Hinduism , Buddhism , and throughout S Asia that are directed
..... Click the link for more information. ; Aurobindo Ghose Ghose, Aurobindo (ôrōbĭn`dō gōsh), 1872–1950, Indian nationalist leader and mystic philosopher.
..... Click the link for more information. ; Chinmoy Ghose Ghose, Chinmoy (gōs gōsh), 1931–, Indian mystic and poet.
..... Click the link for more information. ; Dayananda Saraswati Saraswati, Dayananda (däyənŭn`də särŭs`wətē)
..... Click the link for more information. ; Ramakrishna Ramakrishna or Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa
..... Click the link for more information. ; Vivekananda Vivekananda (vē'vəkənŭn`də), 1863–1902, Hindu mystic, major exponent of Vedanta philosophy.
..... Click the link for more information. ; Yogananda Yogananda (Paramahansa Yogananda) (pärämhäN`sä yōgänän`dä), 1893–1952, Indian mystic.
..... Click the link for more information. . For Buddhism, see Zen Buddhism Zen Buddhism, Buddhist sect of China and Japan. The name of the sect (Chin. Ch'an, Jap. Zen) derives from the Sanskrit dhyana [meditation].
..... Click the link for more information. ; Buddha Buddha (b`də, b
..... Click the link for more information. ; Milarepa Milarepa (mĭlär`əpə), 1040–1143, saint and poet of Tibetan Buddhism .
..... Click the link for more information. ; Daisetz Suzuki Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro (dī`sĕts tātä`rō s
..... Click the link for more information. . See also Taoism Taoism (däu`ĭzəm)
..... Click the link for more information. .
Bibliography
See R. M. Jones, Studies in Mystical Religion (1909, repr. 1970); S. N. Dasgupta, Hindu Mysticism (1927, repr. 1959); E. A. Peers, Studies of the Spanish Mystics (3 vol., 1927–60); E. Underhill, Mysticism (rev. ed. 1930, repr. 1961); J. de Marquette, Introduction to Comparative Mysticism (1949); D. T. Suzuki, Mysticism: Christian and Buddhist (1957, repr. 1971); W. T. Stace, Mysticism and Philosophy (1960); R. C. Zaehner, Hindu and Muslim Mysticism (1960, repr. 1969); G. G. Scholem, Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism (3d ed. 1961); D. Knowles, The English Mystical Tradition (1961); E. O'Brien, Varieties of Mystical Experience (1964); E. C. Butler, Western Mysticism (3d ed. 1967); L. H. Bridges, American Mysticism (1970); G. Parrinder, Mysticism in the World's Religions (1976); D. R. Blumenthal, Understanding Jewish Mysticism: A Biography of Rama Krishna (1985).
mysticism
Spiritual quest for union with the divine. Forms of mysticism are found in all major religions. Hinduism, with its goal of absorption of the soul in the All, is inherently predisposed to mystical experience. Buddhism emphasizes meditation as a means of moving toward nirvana. In Islam, Sufism employs metaphors of intoxication and of the love between bride and bridegroom to express the desire for union with the divine. In Judaism, the foundations of mysticism were laid in the visions of the biblical prophets and were later developed in the Kabbala and in Hasidism. Mysticism has appeared intermittently in Christianity, notably in the writings of St. Augustine and St. Teresa of Àvila, and in the works of Meister Eckhart and his 14th-century successors.
mysticism
Mysticism
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