a massif in southeastern Turkey, in the Hakari Mountains in Kurdistan. Maximum elevation, 4,168 m at the city Cilo. Composed of metamorphic schist, dolomitic limestone, and porphyrites, the massif is deeply scored by the gorges of tributaries to the Great Zab River. Above 3,500 m there are small glaciers and alpine topography. The southern slopes are covered with broad-leaved forests (primarily oak), and the northern slopes are covered with steppes and shrub thickets.