Soviet film-making, born of the socialist age, has become a key element in the multinational culture of the Soviet Union. Its history has been closely linked with the life of the Soviet people, reflecting the diversity of the phenomena and processes of the development of Soviet society. A major contributor to the treasury of world culture, Soviet film-making is the most progressive in the world owing to its social role, communist ideology, humanism, and artistic qualities.
The first motion pictures to be shown in St. Petersburg and Moscow were presented not long after the invention of the Cinématographe (1895), and they soon became popular spectator events in many other Russian cities as well. In 1896–97 the professional photographer A. K. Fedetskii of Kharkov and a number of amateur photographers, such as V. A. Sashin in Moscow, made several documentary films. Beginning in 1903, permanent “electric theaters,” also called “illusions,” appeared, where the first films were shown. Along with the French film companies Pathé and Gaumont, a number of Russian entrepreneurs, including A. O. Drankov and, especially, A. A. Khanzhonkov, were actively involved in the development of motion pictures. In 1906, Khanzhonkov opened a commercial office for the sale of foreign films and equipment; in 1912 he built the largest film workshop of its time in Moscow. Beginning in 1907, local amateur film-makers made newsreels in Tbilisi, Yerevan, Baku, and numerous Ukrainian cities. Feature films were first made in 1916.
The first professional film made in Russia was the feature film Sten’ka Razin and the Princess (1908, directed by V. F. Romashkov). The first full-length film was The Defense of Sevastopol’ (1911, directed by V. M. Goncharov and A. A. Khanzhonkov). V. A. Starevich, a director and cameraman, developed a trick photography technique that he used to make the world’s first three-dimensional animated cartoon (1911–13). The leading prerevolutionary film directors were E. G. Bauer, V. R. Gardin, Ia. A. Protazanov, and P. I. Chardynin, and the leading cameramen were A. A. Levitskii, E. I. Slavinskii, and L. P. Forest’e. They made numerous films, chiefly screen adaptations of literary works, some of which, for example, The Queen of Spades (1916) and Father Sergii (1918), had considerable artistic merit. However, most of the films were melodramas and primitive farces, although motion pictures with pseudopatriotic themes were officially encouraged.
The victory of the October Revolution of 1917 marked the beginning of the development of multinational Soviet film-making. The motion picture, a powerful tool for the political and cultural instruction of the people, immediately received the full support of the Soviet state. V. I. Lenin, who highly valued motion pictures as potentially one of the most effective forms of agitation and means of dissemination of knowledge, noted that “the motion picture is the most important of all the arts for us” (see the collection “Samoe vazhnoe iz vsekh iskusstv,” 1963, p. 124). One of the state’s first tasks was the creative and technical reorganization of the film-making industry. Only a few, half-ruined film studios remained from prerevolutionary times, as well as less than 1,000 motion-picture theaters and a small number of old films.
The first Soviet state film organization, the Film Subdepartment of the People’s Commissariat of Education, was established in 1917. In 1918 motion-picture committees were set up in Moscow and Petrograd. A decree of the Council of People’s Commissars of the RSFSR, dated Aug. 27, 1919, and signed by Lenin, transferred the administration of the photography and motion-picture industry and trade to the People’s Commissariat of Education. The work of the nationalized motion-picture studios, film-rental offices, and motion-picture theaters was administered by the All-Russian Photography and Motion-picture Department, which was reorganized in 1923 into Goskino (State Motion-picture Administration), which in 1926 became Sovkino. Similar state organizations were also formed in the other republics in the period 1920–23, including the All-Ukrainian Photography and Motion-picture Department in the Ukraine, the Azerbaijani and Motion-picture Administration in Azerbaijan, the Armenian Goskino in Armenia, and Goskinoprom Gruzii in Georgia. In 1924, Belgoskino was organized in Byelorussia and Bukhkino in Uzbekistan; owing to a lack of equipment, the former shot its first films in Leningrad. The Communist Party carefully guided the development of Soviet film-making, reflected in the decisions of the Twelfth and Thirteenth congresses of the ACP(B) and the proceedings of the 1928 all-Union party conference on cinematography. A number of party and state figures, such as N. K. Krupskaia and A. V. Lunacharskii, devoted considerable attention to various aspects of film-making, helping creative workers to interpret revolutionary reality and to place their skills and experience at the service of the people.
During the Civil War of 1918–20, agitation trains and ships visited Red Army units, workers, and peasants. Lectures, reports, and political meetings were accompanied by newsreels about events at the various fronts and about the early stages of peaceful construction. The documentary film group led by D. Vertov, including I. I. Beliakov, M. A. Kaufman, I. N. Kopalin, and E. I. Svilova, blazed the trail from the conventional newsreel to the “image-centered publicistic film,” which became the basis of the Soviet film documentary. Typical of the 1920’s were the topical news serial Kinopravda (Film Truth) and the documentaries Forward, Soviet! (1926) and the film One-sixth of the World (1926) by D. Vertov, whose experiments and achievements in documentary films greatly influenced the development of Soviet and world cinematography.
Other important films of the 1920’s were E. I. Shub’s innovative historical-revolutionary films The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty (1927) and The Russia of Nicholas II and Leo Tolstoy (1928), based on archival materials, and V. A. Turin’s film-poem Turksib (1929). The film Hydropeat (1920, directed by Iu. A. Zheliabuzhskii), which received Lenin’s approval, marked the beginning of production-training and popular science films. Feature-length agitation films produced in Moscow, Petrograd, Kiev, and Odessa in the period 1918–21 were very important in the formative period of the film-making industry. They included Congestion (1918, script written by A. V. Lunacharskii, directed by A. P. Panteleev), For the Red Banner (1919, directed by V. P. Kas’ianov), and On the Red Front (1920, directed by L. V. Kuleshov), as well as A. P. Panteleev’s antireligious film The Miracle Worker (1922), which was highly regarded by Lenin.
Film-making also developed during the 1920’s in Georgia, Armenia, Uzbekistan, and Byelorussia. At first, many motion pictures were screen versions of literary works devoted to the struggle against the vestiges of the past and to the building of a new way of life, such as Arsen Dzhordzhiashvili (1921, directed by I. N. Perestiani), Namus (1925; based on A. M. Shirvanzade’s work, directed by A. I. Bek-Nazarov), and The Forest Story (1927; based on a story by M. Charot, directed by Iu. V. Tarich). The revolutionary adventure film The Red Imps (1923; based on P. A. Bliakhin’s work, directed by I. N. Perestiani), set in Georgia, proved to be a notable film-making event.
The world’s first state film-making school, the First State School of Cinematography, was established in Moscow in 1919 to train creative workers (renamed the State Technicum of Cinematography in 1925). It was headed by V. R. Gardin, who with his students made the film Hammer and Sickle (1921), the first full-length feature film on a revolutionary theme. L. V. Kuleshov, a director and one of the first Soviet film theorists, made major contributions to the development of the new motion-picture industry. With students from his workshop, Kuleshov made the films The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks (1924) and By the Law (1926), among others, which made use of new production techniques and continued the search for new montage and acting techniques.
The innovativeness of Soviet film-making was most fully and strongly manifested in the work of the director S. M. Eisenstein. In his historical-revolutionary film Battleship Potemkin (1925), the armed uprising of the sailors was transformed into a generalized image of the Russian Revolution of 1905–07. Eisenstein embodied the idea of the people’s invincibility in a monumentally moving, historically accurate, and integrally artistic form. Battleship Potemkin was outstanding for its innovative montage, the metaphorical quality of its film language, and the classical harmony of its composition. It won world acclaim, and in a survey taken at the 1958 Brussels World Fair, it was named first among the 12 best motion pictures of all time. Eisenstein developed, the principles of the heroic revolutionary epic in the film October (also known as Ten Days That Shook the World; 1927). His films Strike (1925) and Old and New (1929) were characterized by bold innovation.
In 1926 the innovative director V. I. Pudovkin adapted M. Gorky’s novella Mother to the screen, one of the best examples of world film-making, attesting to the great achievements of Soviet film-making in terms of acting and visual impact. Pudovkin continued developing the theme of revolutionary history in the films The End of St. Petersburg (1927) and Descended From Genghis Khan (1929; shown abroad as Storm Over Asia). Other noteworthy silent films were The New Babylon (1929) by G. M. Kozintsev and L. Z. Trauberg and various films dealing with contemporary life, such as S. I. Iutkevich’s Lace (1928), B. V. Barnet’s The House on the Trubnaia (1928), E. V. Cherviakov’s Girl From the Distant River (1928), F. M. Ermler’s Fragment of the Empire (1929), Iu. Ia. Raizman’s The Earth Athirst (1930), and A. M. Room’s The Ghost That Will Not Return (1930). The films of Ia. A. Protazanov, a director of the older generation, were devoted to the revolutionary struggle and the shaping of the new way of life, including His Call (1925), The Forty-first (1927; based on B. A. Lavrenev’s work), and Don Diego and Pelageia (1928). The formative period of the Soviet school of film-making is inseparably linked with the creative work of the first Soviet screenwriters (N. F. Agadzhanova, O. M. Brik, K. N. Vinogradskaia, G. E. Grebner, D. Dzhabarly, S. A. Ermolinskii, N. A. Zarkhi, B. L. Leonidov, O. L. Leonidov, V. V. Mayakovsky, V. K. Turkin, and V. B. Shklovskii), cameramen (A. D. Golovnia, A. N. Moskvin, and E. K. Tisse), and actors (N. P. Batalov, O. A. Zhizneva, I. V. Il’inskii, E. A. Kuz’mina, V. P. Maretskaia, F. M. Nikitin, N. K. Simonov, V. P. Fogel’, I. P. Chuvelev, and M. M. Shtraukh).
A. P. Dovzhenko, one of the greatest Ukrainian directors, made the historical-revolutionary film epic Zvenigora (1928), the film Arsenal (1929), and the poetic film drama Earth (1930), which depicts the struggle for a new socialist countryside. The camerman D. P. Demutskii refined his skills in Dovzhenko’s films. Ukrainian actors, such as I. E. Zamychkovskii (Two Days, 1927; directed by G. M. Stabovoi) and A. M. Buchma (Night Coachman, 1929; directed by G. N. Tasin), worked in the studios of Kiev and Odessa. A. I. Bek-Nazarov, who had begun working in Russian prerevolutionary motion pictures, played an active role as an organizer and director of Georgian, Azerbaijani, and Armenian films (in 1956 the Armenfil’m Studio was named after him). One of the pioneers of Georgian cinematography was the actor and director I. N. Perestiani. The Georgian directors N. M. Shengelaia and M. E. Chiaureli combined innovative film-making techniques with the picturesque, highly emotional heritage of the national art. Shengelaia made the historical drama Eliso (1928), while Chiaureli made the drama Saba (1929) and the film short Khabarda (Out of the Way!, 1931).
The production of animated films was begun in 1923. Among the first directors and artists of animated films were V. S. Brumberg, Z. S. Brumberg, A. I. Bushkin, A. V. Ivanov, I. P. Ivanov-Vano, Iu. A. Merkulov, N. P. Khodataev, and M. M. Tsekhanovskii.
In the 1920’s the production base of the Soviet film-making industry was strengthened considerably. The largest film studios in the country were rebuilt: Mosfil’m (established 1924; under the present name since 1935) and Lenfil’m (founded 1918; under the present name since 1935). The Kiev Studio of the All-Ukrainian Photography and Motion-picture Department (known as the A. P. Dovzhenko Kiev Film Studio since 1957) was established in 1928, followed by Tadzhikkino in Dushanbe in 1930 and others. Along with the construction of large film studios, enterprises for the production of camera equipment, chemicals, and the like were also built. By the early 1930’s, Soviet film-making was a multinational, original art form. More than 1,000 silent feature films and more than 100 animated films were made. The motion-picture network served about 300 million people annually.
The introduction of sound in motion pictures necessitated the radical technical reorganization of film-making and led to major changes in artistic practices. In 1926–27 the laboratory headed by P. G. Tager in Moscow and A. F. Shorin’s laboratory in Leningrad developed the Soviet system of sound motion pictures. The first motion-picture theater showing experimental sound films opened in Leningrad in 1929. The Institute of Sound Film Engineers was founded in Leningrad in 1930 to train workers. That same year, the State Technicum of Cinematography became the State Institute of Cinematography, which in 1938 became the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography. A number of specialized film studios were established, including Soiuzkinokhronika (1931; renamed the Central Studio of Documentary films in 1944), Mostekhfil’m (Moscow Studio of Technical Films; 1933; renamed Tsentrnauchfil’m [Central Studio of Popular Science and Educational Films] in 1966), Soiuzmul’tfil’m (All-Union Animated Films; 1936), and Soiuzdetfil’m (All-Union Children’s Films; 1936; renamed M. Gorky Central Studio for Children’s and Young People’s Films in 1948).
In 1932 the Central Committee of the ACP(B) adopted the resolution On the Reorganization of Literary and Artistic Organizations, which proved to be crucial for the development of the Soviet motion-picture industry as well. The mastery of the method of socialist realism became the fighting program of film-makers. The creative maturity of the Soviet feature film was revealed most fully in the outstanding film Chapaev (1934), directed by G. N. Vasil’ev and S. D. Vasil’ev. In D. A. Furmanov’s novel, the directors found a rich source for a heroic film drama, which revealed the beauty and strength of the Russian revolutionaries in classically perfect form and which showed the role of the people in the history-making process and in the formation of a military revolutionary leader (B. A. Babochkin played the title role). The theme of revolutionary history was developed fully in the best motion pictures of the 1930’s and early 1940’s, such as Golden Mountains (1931, directed by S. I. Iutkevich), lakov Sverdlov (1940, directed by S. I. Iutkevich), The Outskirts (1933, directed by B. V. Barnet), 1st Platoon (1933, directed by V. V. Korsh-Sablin), The Last Masquerade (1934, directed by M. E. Chiaureli), and the trilogy about Maksim comprising The Youth of Maksim (1935), The Return of Maksim (1937), and The Vyborg Side (1939), directed by G. M. Kozintsev and L. Z. Trauberg, with B. P. Chirkov in the role of Maksim. Revolutionary history was also the subject of the films We Are From Kronstadt (1936, directed by E. L. Dzigan), Baltic Deputy (1937, directed by A. G. Zarkhi and I. E. Kheifits), The Last Night (1937, directed by Iu. Ia. Raizman), Zangezur (1936, directed by A. I. Bek-Nazarov), Shchors (1935, directed by A. P. Dovzhenko), and The Horseman (1939, directed by I. A. Savchenko). Experience in the production of films about the history of the revolutionary movement laid the groundwork for films about Lenin, which were especially important with respect to ideological and artistic influence: Lenin in October (1937) and Lenin in 1918 (1939), directed by M. I. Romm, with B. V. Shchukin as Lenin, and The Man With a Gun (1938), directed by S. I. Iutkevich, with M. M. Shtraukh as Lenin. The directors of these films brought out the monumental, intensely human aspects of Lenin, the leader of the Revolution.
The life of the country, the heroic workers, and the everyday life and personalities of the builders of socialism were depicted in films of various genres. The shaping of the new man was a dominant theme of many motion pictures of the 1930’s, such as A Start in Life (1931, directed by N. V. Ekk; the first Soviet sound film), Counterplan (1932, directed by F. M. Ermler and S. I. Iutkevich), Ivan (1932, directed by A. P. Dovzhenko), The Courageous Seven (1936, directed by S. A. Gerasimov), Komsomol’sk (1938, directed by S. A. Gerasimov), The Teacher (1939, directed by S. A. Gerasimov), A Great Citizen (1938–39, directed by F. M. Ermler), Member of the Government (1940, directed by A. G. Zarkhi and I. E. Kheifits), A Great Life (part 1, 1940, directed by L. D. Lukov), and Valerii Chkalov (1941, directed by M. K. Kalatozov). The life affirming comedies of G. V. Aleksandrov, Jolly Fellows (1934), Volga-Volga (1938), and The Blazing Path (1940), reflected new traits in the psychology of the Soviet person, the enthusiasm for work, and intolerance of vestiges of the past, as did B. V. Barnet’s By the Deep Blue Sea (1936), A. I. Medvedkin’s The Wonder-worker (1937), I. A. Pyr’ev’s The Rich Bride (1938), The Tractor Drivers (1939), and The Swine Girl and the Shepherd (1941), K. K. Iudin’s A Girl With Personality (1939), V. V. Korsh-Sablin’s My Love (1940), and A. V. Ivanovskii’s Musical Story (1940) and Anton Ivanovich Is Angry (1941).
A number of films of the prewar years depicted the heroic part of the Soviet people and their struggle against foreign invaders: Peter the First (1937–39, directed by V. M. Petrov), Alexander Nevsky (1938, directed by S. M. Eisenstein), Minin and Pozharskii (1939, directed by V. I. Pudovkin), Suvorov (1941, directed by V. I. Pudovkin), Amangel’dy (1939, directed by M. Z. Levin), and Bogdan Khmel’nitskii (1941, directed by I. A. Savchenko). The antifascist films Professor Mamlock (1938; based on F. Wolffs work, directed by G. M. Rappaport and A. I. Minkin), Marsh Soldiers (1938, directed by A. V. Macheret), and The Oppenheim Family (based on L. Feuchtwanger’s work, directed by G. L. Roshal’) had broad political impact.
Literary classics offered great potential for the development of sound motion pictures. Among the films based on literary works were Judas Golovlev (1934; based on M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin’s work, directed by A. V. Ivanovskii), The Thunderstorm (1934; based on A. N. Ostrovskii’s work, directed by V. M. Petrov), Dumpling (1934; based on G. de Maupassant’s work, directed by M. I. Romm), Pepo (1935; based on G. M. Sundukian’s work, directed by A. I. Bek-Nazarov), The Poor Bride (or The Girl Without a Dowry, 1937; based on A. N. Ostrovskii’s work, directed by Ia. A. Protazanov), and M. S. Donskoi’s trilogy comprising The Childhood of Gorky (1938), In the World (1939), and My Universities (1940). Other such films were The Bear (1938; based on Chekhov’s work, directed by I. M. Annenskii), Man in a Shell (1939; based on Chekhov’s work, directed by I. M. Annenskii), and Masquerade (1941; based on M. Iu. Lermontov’s work, directed by S. A. Gerasimov).
The advances made in the children’s cinema were reflected most fully in the films Torn Shoes (1933, directed by M. A. Barskaia), Lonely White Sail (1937; based on V. P. Kataev’s work, directed by V. G. Legoshin), The Ballad of the Cossack Golota (1937; based on A. P. Gaidar’s work, directed by I. A. Savchenko), and Timur and His Team (1940; based on A. P. Gaidar’s work, directed by A. E. Razumnyi) and in the fairy tales By a Wave of the Wand (1938, directed by A. A. Rou) and The Golden Key (1939; based on A. N. Tolstoy’s work, directed by A. L. Ptushko).
Many animated children’s films were made, including It Is Hot in Africa (1937, directed by D. N. Babichenko), The Round Loaf (1937, directed by V. G. Suteev), Uncle Stepa (1938, directed by V. G. Suteev), and Moidodyr (The Washstand; 1939, directed by I. P. Ivanov-Vano). The New Gulliver, a full length three-dimensional animated film, was made in 1935 by A. L. Ptushko. The first Soviet color film, Grunia Kornakova (1936), was made by the director N. V. Ekk.
In addition to the directors, important contributions to the development of film-making were made by various screenwriters, cameramen, artists, and composers. Among such screenwriters were M. Iu. Bleiman, M. V. Bol’shintsov, V. V. Vishnevskii, E. I. Gabrilovich, A. Ia. Kapler, A. E. Korneichuk, N. F. Pogodin, E. M. Pomeshchikov, L. N. Rakhmanov, and A. N. Tolstoi. The leading cameramen were B. I. Volchek, A. V. Gal’perin, M. E. Gindin, A. N. Gintsburg, V. V. Gordanov, Iu. I. Ekel’chik, A. N. Kol’tsatyi, L. V. Kosmatov, M. P. Magidson, Zh. K. Martov, V. E. Pavlov, B. A. Petrov, F. F. Provorov, V. A. Rapoport, and V. T. Iakovlev. Among the artists who contributed to Soviet film-making were B. V. Dubrovskii-Eshke, V. E. Egorov, E. E. Enei, V. P. Kaplunovskii, I. A. Makhlis, V. V. Sidamon-Eristavi, N. G. Suvorov, M. B. Umanskii, and I. A. Shpinel’, and among the composers, I. O. Dunaevskii, D. B. Kabalevskii, G. N. Popov, S. S. Prokofiev, A. I. Khachaturian, V. V. Sherbachev, and D. D. Shostakovich.
The multinational Soviet school of realistic acting achieved remarkable successes in the 1930’s and 1940’s. Acting became the principal means through which the intellectual and artistic conception of the screenwriter and director was embodied. Among the actors noted for their vivid screen portrayals were P. M. Aleinikov, B. F. Andreev, B. A. Babochkin, M. N. Bernes, N. I. Bogoliubov, V. V. Vanin, N. Vachnadze, E. P. Garin, O. P. Zhakov, M. I. Zharov, Ia. B. Zheimo, A. Karliev, N. A. Kriuchkov, M. A. Ladynina, T. F. Makarova, N. D. Mordvinov, G. N. Nersesian, L. P. Orlova, N. P. Okhlopkov, E. V. Samoilov, L. N. Sverdlin, S. D. Stoliarov, A. K. Tarasova, N. M. Uzhvii, Z. A. Fedorova, N. K. Cherkasov, B. P. Chirkov, M. M. Shtraukh, and B. V. Shchukin. The method of socialist realism became firmly established in the best films.
Among the outstanding achievements in the Soviet documentary were D. Vertov’s film-poems The Symphony of the Donbas (1930) and Three Songs of Lenin (1934), as well as the films Cheliuskin-1 (1934; directed by Ia. M. Posel’skii, screenwriters and cameramen A. M. Shafran and M. A. Troianovskii) and Spain (1939, directed by E. I. Shub) and the popular science films Pushkin’s Manuscripts (1937, directed by S. I. Vladimirskii and A. Egorov) and In the Depths of the Sea (1938, directed by A. M. Zguridi and B. G. Dolin).
Between 1931 and the early 1940’s, the Soviet motion-picture industry made about 500 sound feature films, including 120 animated films. In 1940 there were 28,000 motion-picture projection units, while the number of viewers totaled 900 million.
During the Great Patriotic War of 1941–45, Soviet film-making was instrumental in instilling a fighting spirit and lofty patriotism. Front-line film groups were formed, consisting of experienced documentary film-makers, young graduates of the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography, and cameramen of the motion-picture industry. News serials and specials came out regularly. The Voentekhfil’m Studio, organized on the basis of the Mostekhfil’m Studio, made military training and educational films in the period 1941–44. Particularly important were the “Combat Film Collections,” consisting of short, acted films, documentaries, and newsreels devoted to the people’s struggle against the fascist German aggressors. Master film-makers, such as V. I. Pudovkin, S. I. Iutkevich, I. A. Savchenko, M. S. Donskoi, S. A. Gerasimov, and G. M. Kozintsev, participated in their production. Camermen at the front heroically recorded the fighting from the first days of the war until the capture of Berlin and the surrender of Japan; a number of photographers, such as N. V. Bykov, B. V. Vakar, M. I. Sukhova, V. A. Sushchinskii, and A. P. El’bert, died in the line of duty. The documentary Chronicle of the Great Patriotic War consisted of more than 3.5 million meters of film footage. About 100 documentary films and 490 assorted news serials were released.
Among the noteworthy informational films devoted to the war were Defeat of the German Armies Near Moscow (1942, directed by I. P. Kopalin and L. V. Varlamov), Struggling Leningrad (1942, directed by V. M. Solovtsov, E. Iu. Uchitel’, N. G. Komarevtsev, and R. L. Karmen), Sailors of the Black Sea Fleet (1942, directed by V. N. Beliaev), A Day of War (1942, directed by M. Ia. Slutskii; footage filmed by 160 different cameramen), Stalingrad (1943, directed by L. V. Varlamov), The Battle of Orel (1943, directed by R. B. Gikov and L. N. Stepanova), The Battle for Our Soviet Ukraine (1943, directed by A. P. Dovzhenko and Iu. I. Solntseva), People’s Avengers (1943, directed by V. N. Beliaev), The Urals Forge Victory (1943, directed by F. I. Kiselev and V. N. Boikov), Liberated France (1944, directed by S. I. Iutkevich), Berlin (1945, directed by Iu. Ia. Raizman), The Defeat of Japan (1945, directed by A. G. Zarkhi and I. E. Kheifits), and Trial By the People (or Judgment of the Nations; 1946, directed by R. L. Karmen).
The production of feature films continued during the war. The motion-picture studios of the western and central parts of the USSR were evacuated to Middle Asia and Kazakhstan. Mosfil’m and Lenfil’m moved to Alma-Ata until 1944, where the Central Associated Film Studio was organized. Soiuzdetfil’m worked in a local studio in Dushanbe, while the Kiev Film Studio worked in Ashkhabad. The first full-length feature film about the war, Secretary of the Raion Committee, directed by I. A. Pyr’ev, came out in 1942. The film’s theme of the partisans as the avengers of the people was further developed in such films as She Defends Her Country (1943, directed by F. M. Ermler), The Rainbow (1944; based on V. L. Savilevskaia’s work, directed by M. S. Donskoi), Zoia (1944, directed by L. O. Arnshtam), Prisoner No. 217 (1945, directed by M. I. Romm), and Invasion (1945; based on L. M. Leonov’s work, directed by M. I. Romm).
The films about Red Army soldiers and commanders based on the screenplays and plays of K. M. Simonov were characterized by great patriotic zeal and moral strength: A Lad From Our Town (1942, directed by A. B. Stolper and B. G. Ivanov), Wait for Me (1943, directed by A. B. Stolper and B. G. Ivanov), and In the Name of the Fatherland (1943; based on Simonov’s play The Russian People, directed by V. I. Pudovkin and D. I. Vasil’ev). Other such films were The Front (1943; based on A. E. Korneichuk’s work, directed by G. N. Vasil’ev and S. D. Vasil’ev), Submarine T-9 (1943, directed by A. G. Ivanov), Two Soldiers (1943, directed by L. D. Lukov), March-April (1944, directed by V. M. Pronin), The Deed of the Agent (1947, directed by B. V. Barnet), and Tale of a Real Man (1948; based on B. N. Polevoi’s work, directed by A. B. Stolper). The film The Great Turning Point (1945, directed by F. M. Ermler) depicted the superiority of Soviet military strategy over the adventurist plan of the fascist German invaders.
Labor heroism, the inseparable links between the front and the rear, and the steadfastness of the Soviet people were the subjects of the films Mashen’ka (1942, directed by Iu. Ia. Raizman), At Six in the Evening After the War (1944, directed by I. A. Pyr’ev), The Big Country (1944, directed by S. A. Gerasimov), There Once Was a Girl (1944, directed by V. V. Eisymont), and Native Fields (1945, directed by B. A. Babochkin and A. F. Bosulaev). The traditions of prewar historical biographical films were continued in Georgii Saakadze (1942–43, directed by M. E. Chiaureli), Kutuzov (1944, directed by V. M. Petrov), David-Bek (1944, directed by A. I. Bek-Nazarov), and Ivan the Terrible (part 1, 1945; directed by S. M. Eisenstein).
Revolutionary history and the Civil War were the subjects of The Defense of Tsaritsyn (1942, directed by the Vasil’ev brothers), Aleksandr Parkhomenko (1942, directed by L. K. Lukov), and Kotovskii (1943, directed by A. M. Faintsimmer), as well as of They Call Him Sukhe-Bator (1942, directed by A. G. Zarkhi and I. E. Kheifits), a film about the national liberation struggle in Mongolia. The satirical film comedies Antosha Rybkin (1942, directed by K. K. Iudin) and The New Adventures of Švejk (1943, directed by S. I. Iutkevich) were popular at the front and in the rear.
The victorious conclusion of the war posed new challenges for motion pictures, that of creatively reflecting the feat of all the people in the struggle against fascism and that of depicting the life of the Soviet people who had returned to peaceful labor. Among the films of the late 1940’s and early 1950’s were The Young Guard (1948; based on A. A. Fadeev’s work, directed by S. A. Gerasimov), The Legend of the Siberian Land (1948, directed by I. A. Pyr’ev), The Faraway Bride (1948, directed by E. A. Ivanov-Barkov), Konstantin Zaslonov (1949, directed by V. V. Korsh-Sablin and A. M. Faintsimmer), and The Return of Vasilii Bortnikov (1953, directed by V. I. Pudovkin). The Soviet films of the late 1950’s, including The Cranes Are Flying (1957, directed by M. K. Kalatozov), The House Where I Live (1957, directed by L. A. Kulidzhanov and Ia. A. Segel’), A Man’s Fate (1959; based on M. A. Sholokhov’s work, directed by S. F. Bondarchuk), and Ballad of a Soldier (1959, directed by G. N. Chukhrai), revealed the upsurge in Soviet film-making and the emergence of many new talented creative individuals and reflected a more profound treatment of the war theme. All won world acclaim. The best films about the war, which further developed the creative film-making achievements of the war years, were characterized by a documentary quality and a striving to re-create actual events as exactly and vividly as possible.
The growing interest in past history and in outstanding historical figures and events and military feats was reflected in a number of biographical films, such as Alisher Navoi (1947, directed by K. Ia. Iarmatov), Michurin (1947, directed by A. P. Dovzhenko), Admiral Nakhimov (1947, directed by V. I. Pudovkin), Rainis (1949, directed by Iu. Ia. Raizman), Academician Ivan Pavlov (1949, directed by G. L. Roshal’), and Mussorgsky (1950, directed by G. L. Roshal’). The Russian Question (1948, directed by M. I. Romm) and Meeting on the Elbe (1949, directed by G. V. Aleksandrov) were devoted to the pressing issue of the struggle for peace.
A profound psychological study of the people of the new postwar generation was the subject of the films Someone Else’s Relatives (1956, directed by M. A. Shveitser), Height (1957, directed by A. G. Zarkhi), It Happened in Pen’kovo (1958, directed by S. I. Rostotskii), and Poem About the Sea (1958; based on A. P. Dovzhenko’s work, directed by Iu. I. Solntseva). The comedies of the 1950’s were characterized by refined musicality and skillful acting by actors of various generations: The Dragonfly (1954, directed by S. V. Dolidze) and Carnival Night (1956, directed by E. A. Riazanov). The events of the Civil War and the first postrevolutionary years were re-created in Dokhunda (1957; based on S. Aini’s work, directed by B. M. Kimiagarov), Communist (1958, directed by Iu. Ia. Raizman), and On Lenin’s Permit (1958, directed by L. Faiziev). The diversity of genres characteristic of the 1950’s was also manifested in The Forty-first (1956; based on B. A. Lavrenev’s work, directed by G. N. Chukhrai), Othello (1956; based on Shakespeare’s play, directed by S. I. Iutkevich), The Quiet Don (1957–58; based on Sholokhov’s work, directed by S. A. Gerasimov), and the trilogy Road to Calvary (based on A. N. Tolstoy’s work, directed by G. L. Roshal’), comprising The Sisters (1957), The Year Eighteen (1958), and Gloomy Morning (1959).
The tradition of films about Lenin begun in the 1930’s was continued in the postwar years with the documentary Vladimir Il’ich Lenin (1949, directed by M. I. Romm and V. N. Beliaev), which included all the existing filmed footage of Lenin, and the feature film Stories About Lenin (1957, directed by S. I. Iutkevich).
Popular science films were also made by the studios in Kiev and Sverdlovsk, as well as by the Moscow and Leningrad studios. Among the most important films were They See Again (1947, directed by N. V. Grachev), Story of a Ring (1948, directed B. G. Dolin), First Wings (1949, directed by A. A. Gendel’shtein), and The Forest Story (1950, directed by A. M. Zguridi). The improved skills of animators were evident in such films as The Fox and the Thrush (1946, directed by A. V. Ivanov), The Little Humped-back Horse (1948; based on P. P. Ershov’s work, directed by I. P. Ivanov-Vano), Tsvetik-Semitsvetik (1949, directed by M. M. Tsekhanovskii), Fedia Zaitsev (1949, directed by V. S. Brumberg and Z. A. Brumberg), The Deer and the Wolf (1951, directed by D. N. Babichenko), and The Red Flower (1952, directed by L. K. Atamanov).
Beginning in the 1950’s, increasingly more feature, documentary, and popular science films were made, and film studios in the RSFSR and the other Union republics were rebuilt. Studios were founded in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Moldavia, and Kirghizia, all of which had no film studios before. The films made in the Ukraine, Byelorussia, and Georgia were characterized by a greater diversity of genres and themes; important motion pictures were made in Uzbekistan. The national film industries also developed in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Tadzhikistan, Kirghizia, and Kazakhstan.
In addition to the masters of the older generation, a number of new young film-makers emerged in the various studios of the country in the late 1950’s, most of whom were graduates of the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography, the Advanced Screenwriting Courses (1960), and the Advanced Directing Courses (1966). Among these were the directors T. E. Abuladze, Sh. K. Aimanov, A. A. Alov, V. P. Basov, S. F. Bondarchuk, R. A. Bykov, V. Ia. Vengerov, L. I. Gaidai, G. N. Daneliia, Iu. P. Egorov, V. P. Žalakjavičius, V. I. Ivchenko, Iu. Iu. Karasik, E. G. Klimov, A. S. Konchalovskii, L. A. Kulidzhanov, T. M. Lioznova, A. N. Mitta, V. N. Naumov, A. M. Neretniek, Iu. N. Ozerov, G. I. Panfilov, S. I. Rostotskii, E. A. Riazanov, S. I. Samsonov, A. A. Saltykov, Ia. A. Segel’, V. N. Skuibin, I. V. Talankin, A. A. Tarkovskii, L. A. Faiziev, D. Ia. Khrabrovitskii, M. M. Khutsiev, Iu. S. Chuliukin, G. N. Chukhrai, R. D. Chkheidze, M. A. Shveitser, E. M. Shengelaia, G. N. Shengelaia, and V. M. Shukshin.
New screenwriters to emerge included O. A. Agishev, Iu. T. Dunskii, V. I. Ezhov, B. A. Metal’nikov, Iu. M. Nagibin, I. G. Ol’shanskii, T. G. Sytina, N. N. Figurovskii, and V. S. Frid. Among the new cameramen were I. A. Gritsius, V. K. Derbenev, L. I. Kalashnikov, G. N. Lavrov, V. V. Monakhov, M. M. Pilikhina, S. P. Urusevskii, V. M. Shumskii, and V. I. Iusov.
Among the most important characteristics of the leading actors of the Soviet school of acting were the rigorous selection of the means of expression, intellectuality, versatility, profound psychology, and vivid characterization. Leading actors who emerged in the late 1950’s included L. M. Abashidze, Sh. K. Aimanov, N. U. Arinbasarova, V. F. Artmane, D. Iu. Banionis, A. V. Batalov, S. F. Bondarchuk, M. G. Bulgakova, R. A. Bykov, M. V. Volodina, M. A. Gluzskii, L. M. Gurchenko, A. S. Demidova, T. V. Doronina, E. A. Evstigneev, O. N. Efremov, S. A. Zakariadze, Z. M. Kirienko, M. M. Kozakov, L. V. Kuravlev, K. Iu. Lavrov, I. G. Lapikov, E. P. Leonov, I. V. Makarova, N. V. Mordiukova, G. A. Pol’skikh, N. N. Rybnikov, M. R. Ryskulov, I. S. Savvina, T. E. Samoilova, I. M. Smoktunovskii, O. A. Strizhenov, V. V. Tikhonov, M. A. Ul’ianov, E. Ia. Urbanskii; S. M. Chiaureli, I. M. Churikova, L. A. Chursina, and V. M. Shukshin.
By the early 1960’s, about 120 to 140 full-length feature films were made every year. Creative associations were organized at the major studios. More motion pictures in color were produced, and the wide screen, the Soviet panorama system kinopanorama, and stereophonic sound were introduced. The first Soviet wide-screen film, Tale of Fiery Years (based on A. P. Dovzhenko’s work, directed by Iu. I. Solntseva), was released in 1961.
In the 1960’s and 1970’s, Soviet film-making became more comprehensive and profound in its study of the various aspects of society. The means of expression became richer, and the language of film was refined. The Great Patriotic War continued to be a major theme, with the best films depicting the immortal deeds, moral purity, and humanism of the Soviet people with great emotional force. Among the most important such films were Peace to Him Who Enters (1961, directed by A. A. Alov and V. N. Naumov), My Name Is Ivan (1962, directed by A. A. Tarkovskii), Introduction (1963, directed by I. V. Talankin), The Living and the Dead (1964; based on K. M. Simonov’s work, directed by A. B. Stolper), Tale of a Mother (1964, directed by A. A. Karpov), The Father of a Soldier (1965, directed by R. D. Chkheidze), Nobody Wanted to Die (1966, directed by V. P. Zalakjavicius), The Apples of 1941 (1969, directed by B. Batyrov), The Dawns Here Are Quiet (1972, directed by S. I. Rostotskii), and the four-part film epic Liberation (1970–71, directed by Iu. N. Ozerov).
Films about contemporary life occupied a central place in the 1960’s and 1970’s. They painted a broad picture of life in the country, with interesting, multifaceted portraits of contemporary workers, kolkhoz members, and the intelligentsia. The best films were characterized by a diversity of themes and artistic styles and by genre and stylistic innovation. Among such films were A Simple Story (1960, directed by Iu. P. Egorov), Serezha (1960, directed by G. N. Daneliia and I. V. Talankin), Nine Days of One Year (1962, directed by M. I. Romm), I’m Twenty (1964, directed by M. M. Khutsiev), Chairman (1964, directed by A. A. Saltykov), Falling Leaves (1967, directed by O. Sh. Ioseliani), Your Contemporary (1968, directed by Iu. Ia. Raizman), Let’s Live Till Monday (1968, directed by S. I. Rostotskii), In Love (1969, directed by E. Ishmukhamedov), By the Lake (1969, directed by S. A. Gerasimov), To Love a Man (1972, directed by S. A. Gerasimov), Accused of Murder (1970, directed by B. I. Volchek), The Daughter-in-law (1971, directed by Kh. K. Narliev), White Bird With Black Markings (1971, directed by Iu. G. Il’enko), The Taming of a Flame (1972, directed by D. Ia. Khrabrovitskii), Liberty Is a Sweet Word (1973, directed by V. P. Žalakjavičius), Red the Rose Tree (1974, directed by V. M. Shukshin), Earthly Love (1974, directed by E. S. Matveev), Song of the Lovers (1974, directed by A. S. Konchalovskii), The Red Apple (1975, directed by T. Okeev), The Bonus (1975, directed by S. Mikaelian), and May I Have a Word (1976, directed by G. I. Panfilov).
The creative maturity of Soviet film-making of the 1960’s and 1970’s was reflected in the motion pictures about the Revolution and the Civil War. The films Blue Notebook (1963, directed by L. A. Kulidzhanov), Lenin in Poland (1966, directed by S. I. Iutkevich), the two-part film comprising A Mother’s Heart and A Mother’s Fidelity (1966–67, directed by M. S. Donsloi), and Sixth of July (1968, directed by Iu. Iu. Karasik) were important contributions to the treasury of films about Lenin.
The historical-revolutionary films of this period were typified by epic conception and authenticity based on actual documents. The spirit of revolutionary heroics united such creatively different pictures as The First Teacher (1965, directed by A. S. Konchalovskii), No Ford Through the Flames (1968, directed by G. A. Panfilov), and The White Sun of the Desert (1970, directed by V. Ia. Motyl’). Many historical-revolutionary films were based on Soviet literary works, for example, the films The Optimistic Tragedy (1963; based on V. V. Vishnevskii’s work, directed by S. I. Samsonov), The Iron Stream (1967; based on A. S. Serafimovich’s work, directed by E. L. Dzigan), The Commissars (1970; based on Iu. N. Libedinskii’s work, directed by N. P. Mashchenko), and Flight (1971; based on M. A. Bulgakov’s work, directed by A. A. Alov and V. N. Naumov). Screen versions of Russian and foreign classics were also made, including The Lady With the Dog (1960; based on Chekhov’s work, directed by I. E. Kheifits), Hamlet (1964; based on Shakespeare’s play, directed by G. M. Kozintsev), King Lear (1964; based on Shakespeare’s play, directed by G. M. Kozintsev), the four-part film War and Peace (1966–67; based on L. N. Tolstoy’s work, directed by S. F. Bondarchuk), Don Quixote (1967; based on Cervantes’ work, directed by G. M. Kozintsev), and the three-part The Brothers Karamazov (1968; based on F. M. Dostoevsky’s work, directed by I. A. Pyr’ev).
The best traditions of Soviet comedy were continued and significantly enriched by such films as Watch Out for the Car! (1966, directed by E. A. Riazanov), The Irony of Fate, or Hope You Had a Good Bath (1976, directed by E. A. Riazanov), The Caucasian Captive (1967, directed by L. I. Gaidai), the slapstick comedy Aibolit-66 (1966, directed by R. A. Bykov), and the lyrical film for children Someone Is Ringing, Open the Door (1966, directed by A. N. Mitta).
Animated film-making made significant advances in the 1960’s and 1970’s. About 30 animated films were made each year by the film studios of Moscow, Kiev, Tbilisi, Tallinn, and other cities. The most popular of these films were Boniface’s Vacation (1965, directed by F. S. Khitruk), The Musicians of Bremen (1969, directed by I. Kovalevskaia), Gena the Crocodile (1969, directed by R. A. Kachanov), Just Wait! (parts 1–8, 1969–74, directed by V. M. Kotenochkin), Oh, Fashion, Fashion (1969, directed by V. D. Bakhtadze), and The Island (1973, directed by F. S. Khitruk).
Documentary film-making made notable advances. The documentaries of the 1960’s and 1970’s were characterized by high emotional content and skillful artistry in the depiction of events. The trilogy comprising Lenin’s Manuscripts, The Party Banner, and Lenin: The Last Pages (1960–63, directed by F. A. Tiapkin) was a major achievement in documentary films. Other important documentaries were Multilevel America (1961, directed by G. I. Asatiani), Katiuska (1964, directed by V. P. Lisakovich), Ordinary Fascism (1965, directed by M. I. Romm), The Great Patriotic War (1965, directed by R. L. Karmen and I. V. Venzher), If Your Home Is Dear to You (1967, directed by V. S. Ordynskii), Granada, Granada, My Granada (1967, script written by R. L. Karmen and K. M. Simonov), Comrade Ho Chi Minh (1969, directed by E. I. Vermisheva), Naryn Diary (1971, directed by A. Vidugiris), The Difficult Roads of Peace (1974, directed by A. A. Koloshin), and The Heart ofKorvalan (1975, directed by R. L. Karmen).
The central and republic film studios began making increasingly more films for television, such as Operation Trust (1970, directed by S. I. Kolosov), His Excellency’s Aide-de-camp (1971, directed by E. I. Tashkov), Seventeen Moments of Spring (1972, directed by T. M. Liozmova), and The Red and the Black (1976; based on Stendhal’s work, directed by S. A. Gerasimov). The Ukrainian television film How Steel Was Tempered (1973; based on N. A. Ostrovskii’s novel, directed by R. N. Mashchenko) earned wide recognition.
Soviet film-making underwent important progressive development as a result of the beneficial influence of the resolution of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union entitled On Measures for the Further Development of Soviet Cinematography (1972) and the decisions of the party congresses, which inspired film-makers to new achievements. These actions paved the way for the development of new ways of improving film-making techniques, encouraged the mutual enrichment of the film-making industries of the fraternal Soviet republics, and increased the role of motion pictures in the building of communism and in the cultural life of the people.
Soviet films effectively reach a broad audience in the vital ideological struggle against imperialist propaganda and show all the world’s people the advantages of the socialist way and the humanism and internationalism of Soviet society. They have exerted a beneficial influence on the development of the world cinema and have made major contributions to the enrichment of the film vocabulary. The achievements of Soviet film-making have directly influenced the development of Italian neorealism and the establishment of film-making in the socialist and developing countries and have helped arouse interest in social issues in the film-making industries of the developed capitalist countries. The theoretical heritage of the Soviet classical directors—S. M. Eisenstein, V. I. Pudovkin, A. P. Dovzhenko, and D. Vertov—has received world recognition. Relying on this tradition, Soviet motion-picture study is continuing its successful, multifaceted development. The Cinematographers’ Union of the USSR unites all the film workers in the Soviet Union.
The best Soviet films, which uphold the lofty reputation of Soviet film-making abroad, have won prizes and awards at international film festivals in Europe, the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Among the representative film festivals held in the Soviet Union are the All-Union Film Festival (since 1958), the International Film Festival (since 1935, once every two years since 1959), the All-Union Festival of Sports Films (since 1966), and the international film festival of the countries of Asia, Africa (since 1968), and Latin America (since 1976) in Tashkent. The development of international ties is reflected in the joint production of motion pictures by Soviet film studios and the studios of the countries of the socialist community, including Bulgaria, Poland, Rumania, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Mongolia, Yugoslavia, the German Democratic Republic, and Cuba, as well as the studios in India, Italy, France, Japan, Sweden, the United States, and other countries.
All the Union republics make feature and documentary films. In 1975, 282 full-length motion pictures were released (including 143 feature, 30 documentary, 11 popular science, and 98 television films) and 1,376 film shorts. More than 50 news serials are made annually, including The News of the Day, Pioneer Life (for children), The Fuse, an all-Union satirical serial, Agriculture News, and Science and Technology. The scientific and technological revolution has had an important effect on the development of popular science and educational films. Over the years, the Soviet motion-picture industry has made (through 1975 inclusively) about 5,000 motion pictures, including as many as 900 animated films.
Film-makers and film management and technical personnel are trained at the All-Union State Institute of Cinematography in Moscow, the Leningrad Institute of Theater, Music, and Cinematography, the Leningrad Institute of Film Engineers, the film departments at the theatrical institutes of the Union and autonomous republics, and film technicums.
In 1977, the USSR had 39 studios for the production of feature, documentary, and popular science films. There were more than 152,800 motion-picture projection units: 26,300 in the cities and 126,500 in the rural areas. More than 100,000 were widescreen units. In addition, there were 71,298 noncommercial motion-picture projection units at, for example, schools and enterprises.
O. V. IAKUBOVICH-IASNYI