(1) One of the basic tendencies of ancient Chinese philosophy, represented primarily by the treatises of Lao-tsu (called in ancient times the Tao Tê Ching) and Chuang-tzu. At the present time, most scholars have come to the conclusion that Chuang-tzu’s treatise appeared about 300 B.C. and Lao-tzu’s appeared at approximately the same time. In connection with this, the dating of the rise of Taoism has been moved forward from the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. to the fourth and third centuries B.C.
At the center of the teachings expounded in Chuang-tzu’s treatise, in the form of parables of a polemical nature that are directed against Confucianism and Mohism, is the theme of the opposition of nature to society and a call for man to shake off the fetters of obligation and duty and return to the simple, natural life close to nature and embodying tao. This concept appears as the mysterious wholeness of universal life, present in everything but not exhausted in any single thing, incapable of being known by reason or expressed in words. Disillusionment with the possibility of political and social action, anarchic individualism, mysticism, and irrationalism are all characteristic of the philosophy of Chuang-tzu, but the idea, presented in the treatise, on the desirability of the total destruction of culture, marked the beginning of the Taoist tradition. This tradition has more than once in the course of Chinese history given ideological shape to peasant revolutionism. At the same time, the exaltation of nature and the call for attentive observation of its processes promoted, on the one hand, the appearance in China of the initial scientific accomplishments that made possible a series of inventions (in particular, the invention of paper) and encouraged technological progress; on the other hand, it subsequently played a large role in the development of Chinese painting (especially, landscape painting). In the treatise by Lao-tsu the concept of tao acquires the meaning of not only the essence but also the original cause of the universe. Instead of the absolute rejection of politics and moral philosophy found in Chuang-tzu’s writings, there is a call to inaction (wu wei), signifying on the moral plane withdrawal, compliance, and the renunciation of desire and struggle and on the political plane the advocacy of nonintervention of the government in the life of the people.
(2) One of the Chinese religions. Taoism arose in the second century A.D. and used the treatise by Lao-tsu as its basic canonical work. In the second century, Chang Tao-ling founded, apparently under the influence of Buddhism, the Taoist religious organization, with whose help an insurgent government was created during the uprising of the Yellow Bandages (184). In the early fifth century, Kou Chien-chih elaborated on the Taoist theology and ritual, which made possible the proclamation of Taoism as the state religion. Taoism enjoyed special protection during the T’ang era, when Lao-tsu, Chuang-tzu, and other Taoist thinkers were canonized by imperial edict and Taoist temples were erected throughout the country. After the tenth century, Taoism lost the support of the state power and was preserved until the middle of the 20th century mainly as a syncretic, popular religion that had absorbed elements of Confucianism and Buddhism.
The basic aim of the adherents of Taoism is the achievement of long life, for which a whole series of practices are used, beginning with specific diets and ending with various physical exercises. Taoist magi and doctors engaged in the search for the elixir of immortality significantly furthered the development of Chinese alchemy.
V. P. RUBIN