a form of stage art whose subject matter is expressed through dance and music. The term “ballet” is primarily used to denote European ballet, which took shape during the 16th through 19th centuries. In the 20th century, however, the term has been more widely interpreted and has been applied to Eastern dance performances as well.
European ballet arose during the Renaissance. A distinction between social dance and theatrical dance was made at the end of the 14th century. The process of devising theatrical dance, started in Italy and picked up in other countries, led in the 15th-16th centuries to the birth of ballet. In the 16th century stage dances, which had formerly been presented as interludes, were integrated into the total performance and thus acquired dramatic shape. The first performances that were unified by one theme appeared in France in the second half of the 16th century (for example, the Ballet comique de la reine of Baldassarino de Belgiojoso, 1581). At that time, dancing was not yet separated from the spoken word and song. Courtiers participated in performances given at court. After the appearance of professional dancers, the technique of dance began to develop. By the end of the 17th century, principles governing the themes and forms of ballet had been developed, and different types of theatrical dance had been devised.
In the 18th century ballet developed fully as an independent art in England, Austria, and later in France. J. Weaver and M. Sallé created ballets on ancient classical themes in London. In Vienna ballet masters F. Hilferding and G. An-giolini turned to classical tragedies. The French choreographer J. G. Noverre generalized and consolidated the theory and practice of the new ballet. His ballets— Medea and Jason by J. J. Rodolphe (1763) and The Horatii and the Curiatii by J. Starzer (1775)—were marked by unity and logical thematic development. Their plots are revealed through music and pantomime. Noverre’s successors— among them the ballet master J. Dauberval, choreographer of La filie mal gardée (1789)—attempted to develop the action of the dance itself while maintaining Noverre’s basic principles. The ballet master V. Galeotti worked in Denmark. The principles of ballet d’action were developed in the works of the Italian choreographer S. Viganó— The Creations of Prometheus by Beethoven (1801 and 1813) and Othello (1818).
In Russia regular ballet performances were staged from the mid-1730’s. Classic pantomime ballet was cultivated by ballet masters Hilferding and Angiolini. At the turn of the 19th century, I. I. Val’berkh was staging ballets similar in style to sentimentalism— New Werther by A. N. Titov (1799) and Paul and Virginia (1810). National themes and folklore were used in dance interludes and divertissements, especially during the Patriotic War of 1812.
The achievements of ballet in both France and Russia paved the way for the rise of romantic ballet, some features of which could already be detected in the 1820’s in the ballets of C. Didelot, such as Flore and Zéphire (1818) and The Prisoner of the Caucasus, or The Bride’s Ghost by C. Cavos (1823), and in the ballets of his successor A. P. Glushkov-skii—for example, in Ruslan and Liudmila, or The Overthrow of Chernomor, the Evil Magician by F. Sholz (1812). Romantic ballet, which reached its final form in France in the 1830’s, became one of the high points of the development of 19th-century choreographic art. The romantic characters reflected a generalized and idealized representation of man. A new dance style appeared in the ballets of choreographer F. Taglioni, staged for the ballerina M. Taglioni—La Sylphide by J. Schneitzhoffer (1832) and Danube Maiden by A. Adam (1836). Jumping technique developed and female toe dancing appeared. The best work of this trend was Adam’s ballet Giselle, staged by J. Perrot in 1841. F. Elssler was an eminent ballerina of the romantic ballet. The ballets of Perrot, among them C. Pugni’s La Esmeralda (1844) and Adam’s Le Corsaire (1858), were close to the romantic poets’ ideas of national liberation and exerted an influence through their pathos and emotional force. The lyrical dance dramas of the Danish choreographer A. Bournonville were one of the offshoots of the romantic ballet; they included Napoli by H. Paulli, E. Helsted, N. Gade, and H. C. Lumbye (1842) and Wedding Procession in Hardanger by Paulli (1853).
With the crisis in romanticism, ballet in Europe in the second half of the 19th century began to lose its profound human content and verged on fairy tales and revues. These features appeared in the works of A. Saint-Léon, among them Paquerette by P. Benois and C. Pugni (1851) and The Humpbacked Horse by Pugni (1864). Although the Russian theater paid tribute to this style, the decline of the romantic spectacle did not lead to the degeneration of the ballet in Russia. The early ballets of M. I. Petipa partially preserved the thematic unity that marked the preceding period. Subsequently, a new aesthetic of full-scale ballet performance took shape, in which the stage plot was expressed in pantomime scenes and the work’s basic idea gave rise to generalized forms in large dance ensembles. The dance achieved a high level of expression and technical perfection in the ballets of Petipa, who used the music as his source. For this reason, the entrance of symphonic composers into the ballet theater was a significant event.
The dance ensembles of P. I. Tchaikovsky’s The Sleeping Beauty (1890) and A. K. Glazunov’s Raymonda (1898), staged by Petipa, and Tchaikovsky’s The Nutcracker and Swan Lake (1892 and 1895), staged by L. I. Ivanov and Petipa, were comparable to symphonic music in their ability to crystallize thoughts and feelings.
In the 20th century, M. M. Fokine began a reform. He led ballet toward ideas and forms that were in keeping with the art of his time, leaning especially toward the aesthetic principles of Mir isskustva (World of Art). His ballets The Pavil-lion of Armide by N. Cherepnin (1907), Chopiniana, based on the music of F. Chopin (1908), Carnival, based on the music of R. Schumann (1910), and The Firebird and Petrouchka by I. F. Stravinsky (1910 and 1911) were stylistically and thematically close to the artists of Mir isskustva with whom Fokine collaborated. They had much in common with contemporary poetry and the search for new ideas pursued by theatrical producers. Fokine’s one-act ballets, dramatically complete and unified, introduced new choreography in place of the usual prescribed compositions (such as pas de deux and grand pas). This innovation was the dynamic dance pantomime imbued with expressive mime. At the beginning of the 20th century, A. A. Gorskii also attempted to reform ballet, striving for realistic motivation— Gudule’s Daughter by A. Iu. Simon (1902) and Salammbo by A. F. Arends (1910).
The struggle between academic ballet and the new trend was reflected in the art of performing. The academic style attracted M. F. Kshesinskaia, O. I. Preobrazhenskaia, and E. V. Gel’tser, while T. P. Karsavina and V. F. Nijinsky participated in Fokine’s experiments. Nijinsky also showed his merit as a choreographer by introducing expressionist motifs into his ballets The Afternoon of a Faun, based on music by C. Debussy (1912), and The Rite of Spring by I. F. Stravinsky (1913). The outstanding Russian ballerina A. P. Pavlova expressed the ideas of the age in classical ballet style.
By the turn of the 20th century, ballet had become one of the best-developed areas of Russian national culture. At that time ballet as an independent and creatively developing art form existed only in Russia. For this reason the achievements of the Russian masters affected choreographic developments internationally. Under the direct influence of Russian ballet, ballet in Western Europe and the United States experienced a revival. It also spread to countries where it had not been formerly known. The unparalleled popularity of dance in the 20th century is based primarily on the achievements of Russian ballet.
In the first quarter of the 20th century, especially after the organization of the “Russian seasons” abroad, which ran in Paris and London beginning in 1909, interest in ballet grew even greater. Various schools of “free” dance (or modern dance, eurhythmic dance) appeared, based on the prototype of I. Duncan. Increasing attention was also given to folk dances. By the mid-20th century, almost every country had formed its own national school of ballet based on the combination of these influences and the country’s national tradition.
The dance company Diaghilev Ballets Russes, which was based on the earlier “Russian seasons” troupe and included the choreographers L. F. Massine, G. Balanchine, and B. F. Nijinska, worked in France until 1929. This troupe further developed the Fokine tradition, which was modified by the influences of contemporary French painting (P. Picasso, F. Léger, and others) and music. In the 1920’s and 1930’s, the ballet troupe of the Paris Grand Opéra Theater became more active (choreographer S. Lifar and others). New dance troupes have been created since the late 1940’s by R. Petit, M. Béjart, and J. Charrat, who are actively striving to bring ballet closer to contemporary themes and images.
English ballet adopted the principles of the Russian ballet, at the same time maintaining the English theatrical tradition of pantomime. This trend was expressed in the early productions of choreographer N. de Valois (Job by R. Vaughan Williams, 1931), in the tragic pantomime stagings of R. Helpmann (Hamlet, based on the music of Tchaikovsky, 1942), and in the parodistic and farcical presentations often connected with English humorous literature and satirical painting—for example, Facade by W. Walton with choreog-graphy by F. Ashton (1931) and The Rake’s Progress by G. Gordon with choreography by N. de Valois (1935).
In the USA choreographer G. Balanchine creates plotless ballets which develop the principles once advanced by Petipa; the dance movements here are perceived as the visual analogy of music. American ballet makes wide use of “free” dance (M. Graham, D. Humphrey, and others). In the productions of choreographers A. Tudor (Pillar of Fire, based on the music of A. Schönberg, 1942) and Agnes de Mille, modern dance is combined with classical. A special group of ballets are those based on folk culture or everyday life—for example, de Mille’s Rodeo by A. Copland (1942). In the 1930’s there was a revival of Danish ballet based on the preserved century-old tradition of Bour-nonville. Ballet revivals began in Italy, Austria, and Sweden. After World War II ballet spread to Yugoslavia, the Netherlands, and the Federal Republic of Germany. Ballet developed in Poland and Hungary, and ballet theaters were organized in Czechoslovakia, the Democratic Republic of Germany, Rumania, and Bulgaria. Ballet appeared in countries which formerly had no ballet art—such as Turkey, the United Arab Republic, Japan, and Australia. In Spain the Spanish classical dance was revived and spread (dancers Argentina and Antonio). In Latin America choreographers combine national and modern dance (Mexico) and modern and classical dance (Chile and Cuba).
In Asia (for example, in India, Indonesia, Ceylon, the Chinese People’s Republic) there is a revival of the national tradition of folk and staged dance, which serves as a basis for modern performances as well. Dance folklore is also being studied in Africa, where folk dance companies were founded in the 1950’s and 1960’s.
Soviet ballet began to take shape immediately after the October Revolution. Incorporating the achievements of the past—the traditions of academic ballet and the Fokine trend—Soviet ballet transformed and enriched them. The multinational Soviet ballet is uniform in its artistic and aesthetic principles and its art is accessible to the masses; it affirms the principles of socialist humanism. Realism prevails among all Soviet masters of ballet, but the unity of ideological and methodological principles does not exclude diversity of style.
Soviet ballet has passed through several stages. The 1920’s were marked by an intense search for new, revolutionary, and contemporary content and corresponding new forms. Choreographer F. V. Lopukhov established the dance allegory and the dance poster (The Red Whirlwind by V. M. Deshevov, 1924), the dance symphony (The Greatness of the Universe, based on the music of Beethoven, 1923), and the forms of the active, satirical folk theater (Pulcinella by I. Stravinsky, 1926). K. Ia. Goleizovskii attempted to convey a contemporary feeling in emotionally charged action using the music of Scriabin, Debussy, and Prokofiev; the theme of spiritual freedom is reflected in his production of S. N. Vasilenko’s Joseph the Handsome (1925). At the same time the best ballets of the past were also preserved. These two basic trends—the preservation of traditions and innovation—united by the end of the decade. The ballet Ice Maiden, based on the music of E. Grieg and choreographed by Lopukhov (1927), featured large dance ensembles based on classical dance with acrobatic elements. In R. M. Gliére’s The Red Poppy, with choreography by L. A. Lashchilin and V. D. Tikhomirov (1927), a search for psychological truth manifested itself in the character sketch of the heroine, while the mass dance lablochko (Little Apple) anticipated the appearance of the heroic dance, which would become one of the achievements of the next decade. This trend emerged even more noticeably in the ballets of choreographers V. I. Vainonen (Flames of Paris by B. V. Asafiev, 1932) and V. M. Chabu-kiani (The Heart of the Hills by A. M. Balanchivadze, 1938, and Laurencia by A. A. Krein, 1939). In the late 1920’s and early 1930’s a new type of “heroic” ballet artist also appeared who energetically and actively welcomed life. These included M. T. Semenova, A. N. Ermolaev, and V. M. Chabukiani.
From the mid-1930’s to the mid-1950’s, the major genre of Soviet ballet was the multiact dance drama which drew its plot from classical literature. In those years new principles of dramatic composition—including scenario, music, and choreography—were worked out. Choreographers strove for an uninterrupted development of action and authenticity of characters. The most successful of such choreographers were R. V. Zakharov (B. V. Asafiev’s The Fountain of Bakhchisarai,1934), L. M. Lavrovskii (Prokofiev’s Romeo and Juliet,1940), and V. P. Burmeister (S. N. Vasilenko’s Lola,1943). The tendencies of dramatic ballet were clearly expressed in the art of G. S. Ulanova. Other dancers who achieved fame at this time include K. M. Sergeev, T. M. Vecheslova, N. M. Dudinskaia, O. V. Lepeshinskaia, A. M. Messerer, and M. M. Gabovich.
In the 1930’s ballet theaters were established in many republics, even in those where ballet was previously unknown and the people did not even have native dances.
Ballets that became famous in the Ukraine include Lileia by K. F. Dan’kevich with choreography by S. N. Sergeev (1946) and Forest Song by M. A. Skorul’skii with choreography by V. I. Vronskii (1958); in Byelorussia, The Nightingale by M. E. Kroshner with choreography by A. N. Ermolaev (1939); in Uzbekistan, Semurg by B. V. Brovtsyn with choreography by I. Iusupov (1964); in Kazakhstan, Kambar and Nazym by V. V. Velikanov with choreography by M. F. Moiseev (1938) and D. Abirov (1959); in Georgia, the many productions of V. M. Chabukiani, which include Sinatle by G. V. Kiladze (1947), Gorda by D. A. Toradze (1949), and Othello by A. D. Machavariani (1957); in Azerbaijan, The Maiden’s Tower by A. Budalbeili with choreography by S. N. Kevorkov and V. I. Vronskii (1940) and Seven Beauties by K. Karaev with choreography by P. A. Gusev (1952); in Lithuania, Egle—Queen of the Grass Snakes by E. K. Balsȳs with choreography by V. Grivichas (1960); in Moldavia, The Broken Sword by E. L. Lazarev with choreography by N. V. Danilov (1960); in Latvia, Sakta of Freedom by A. P. Skulte with choreography by J. J. Canga (1950); in Kirghizia, Cholpon by M. R. Raukhverger with choreography by L. M. Kramarevskii (1944) and N. S. Tugelov (1958); in Tadzhikistan, Leili and Medzhnun by S. A. Balasanian with choreography by G. Balamat-zade (1947); in Armenia, Marmar by E. S. Oganesian with choreography by 1.1. Arbatov and A. M. Muradian (1957); in Turkmenia, Aldarkose by K. A. Korchmarev with choreography by N. S. Kholfin (1942) and K. Dzhaparov (1952); in Estonia, Kalevipoeg by E. A. Kapp with choreography by H. J. Tohvelman (1948) and I. A. Urbel (1953); in Bashkiria, The Crane’s Song by L. B. Stepanov with choreography by N. A. Anisimova (1944); in Buriatia, Angara the Beauty by L. K. Knipper with choreography by M. S. Zaslavskii (1959); and in Tataria, Shurale by F. Z. Iarullin with choreography by L. V. Iakobson (1945). Many masters of ballet in the national republics have earned the title of People’s Artist of the USSR. Leading figures in the ballet of the Union Republics include G. Almas-zade, B. Beishenalieva, L. Vekilova, V. E. Viltsin’, P. P. Virskii, V. I. Vronskii, L. Zakhidova, G. Izmailova, V. F. Kalinov-skaia, A. Z. Nasretdinova, G. K. Sabaliauskaite, L. P. Sakh’ianova, M. Turgunbaeva, and V. M. Chabukiani.
In the mid-1950’s a new chapter began in the development of Soviet ballet. The ballets created in the 1950’s and 1960’s demonstrate their creator’s increasing interest in man’s inner world in all its complexity and in man’s relation to his time. Soviet choreographers revived the traditions of 19th-century symphonized dance, turned to Fokine’s experience, and further developed the achievements of the innovative Soviet choreographers of the 1920’s and their successors, the producers of choreographic drama. The natural process of growth and development in Soviet ballet continues with its active and creative explorations.
Soviet choreographers revived genres that had not been seen on the stage for many years. L. V. Iakobson staged publicistic poster ballets such as The Bedbug by F. Otkazov and G. I. Firtich (1962) and The Twelve by B. I. Tishchenko (1964). I. D. Bel’skii staged the ballet symphony Leningrad Symphony, based on the music of D. D. Shostakovich (1961). The ballets of Iu. N. Grigorovich are psychological dramas in which each character is carried to the point of generalization— The Stone Flower by S. S. Prokofiev (1957), Legend of Love by A. D. Melikov (1961), and Spartacus by A. I. Khachaturian (1968). Ballets on modern themes were staged by O. M. Vinogradov (AseV by V. A. Vlasov, 1967) and N. D. Kasatkina and V. Iu. Vasilev (Heroic Poem by N. N. Karetnikov, 1964). The leading dancers of the Moscow and Leningrad theaters during the 1940’s and 1950’s were A. Ia. Shelest, M. M. Plisetskaia, R. S. Struchkova, I. A. Kolpakova, and N. V. Timofeeva. The leading dancers of the 1960’s include V. V. Vasil’ev, N. I. Bess-mertnova, N. R. Makarova, M. L. Lavrovskii, and M. E. Liepa.
There has been an intensive development of ballet theater during the Soviet era. It is truly becoming a people’s theater. In Russia before the October Revolution there were two theaters of opera and ballet, which on the average gave 40 to 50 ballet performances a year (that is, a combined total of 100), attended by somewhat over 33,000 people. In the USSR (1970) there are 40 opera and ballet theaters. In addition, ballets are produced in music theaters (for example, in Tartu), in music and drama theaters in Syktyvkar, Yakutsk, and other cities, and in a number of operetta theaters in Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, Odessa, and so forth. The number of ballet performances totals in the thousands and the number of spectators in the millions. Each ballet company in these theaters includes from 40 or 50 to 200 or 225 (the Bolshoi) members.
In addition to professional ballet companies, there are also amateur groups. They are organized at industrial plants, clubs, palaces of culture, educational institutions, and military units. Amateur groups have a network of clubs and studios at their disposal; they perform at concerts or people’s theaters, which produce ballet shows. In the Russian Federation alone, some 20 people’s theaters have their own ballet repertoires.
Before the revolution there were two ballet schools in Russia. In the USSR in 1970 there were 16 state schools in addition to a large number of professional and amateur ballet studios in theaters and houses of culture. Dance teachers and choreographers are trained in such institutions of higher learning as the A. Lunacharskii State Institute of Theatrical Arts in Moscow, the N. Rimsky-Korsakov Conservatory in Leningrad, and the Institute of Culture in Moscow.
Soviet ballet is marked by its ideological content; it is an instrument for moral education. Subjects for ballet have broadened immeasurably; ballets depict the hero struggling for freedom, and the image of insurrectionary masses has been created. The performances staged by Soviet choreographers are imbued with humanitarianism; they affirm the final victory of justice and proclaim the dignity and freedom of the individual.
The masters of Soviet ballet reflect reality truthfully by generalizing it and revealing all that is typical; they express it in the unity of musical and choreographic images.
The expansion of cultural relations in the 1950’s and 1960’s has played an important role in the development of world ballet. Soviet ballet companies tour in all countries of the world, and Soviet choreographers and ballet teachers stage performances abroad and establish ballet schools; artists from many countries are visiting members of Soviet ballet theaters and schools.
E. IA. SURITS