a musical work in sonata form, intended for performance by a symphony orchestra; one of the most important genres of symphonic music. Some symphonies include parts for chorus or for vocal soloists. Symphonies have also been written for string orchestras, brass bands, folk-instrument orchestras, and other ensembles.
A symphony usually consists of four movements: the first, in the form of a sonata allegro; the second, slow and lyrical; the third, a minuet or scherzo; and the fourth, a finale, frequently in rondo form, with dance or song themes. The symphony is the highest form of instrumental music, surpassing all other forms in its potential for embodying significant ideas and intentions.
The term “symphony” did not acquire its present meaning until the 18th century. In ancient Greece the word symphonia meant certain intervals or instruments. In Western Europe the term “symphony” referred to consonance, music in general, or singing. During the 16th century the term was applied to individual works, initially vocal and instrumental ones. The Sacrae symphoniae of G. Gabrieli (Italy, 16th and early 17th centuries), H. L. Hassler, and H. Schütz (Germany, 17th century) were major vocal and instrumental religious compositions. After the early 17th century, instrumental preludes—parts of suites, cantatas, and especially operas—were usually called symphonies. Of importance in the development of the classical symphony were orchestral preludes to operas (overtures), particularly the Venetian and, to an even greater degree, the Neapolitan sinfonias (A. Scarlatti, N. Porpora, G. Pergolesi, and G. B. Sammartini, for example). Fast and slow movements were contrasted (fast—slow—fast) and features of the sonata form emerged in these works.
During the 18th century the symphony became a concert genre independent of the opera and assimilated elements of many other genres. For a long time the symphony was similar to the divertimento and the orchestral serenade. An important phase in the development of the symphony is associated with the Mannheim school. Italian, Austrian, and French composers also contributed to the development of the symphony. During the mid-18th century the minuet became one of the standard movements of the symphony.
The symphony achieved maturity with the works of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, representatives of the Viennese classical school. The creative work of Haydn, the composer of 104 symphonies, encompasses a broad range, from symphonies similar to the suite and the divertimento to the 12 London symphonies (1791–95), which are distinguished for their completely defined cyclic structure and individual movements, their emphasis on thematic development, the increasing importance of the finale, and unity of conceptualization. Written before Haydn’s London symphonies, Mozart’s last and most significant symphonies (approximately 50) include the lyrical Symphony in G minor and the majestic Symphony in C major (the “Jupiter”). The symphonic form was enriched by Beethoven, in whose compositions heroic spirit, dramatism, and a philosophical foundation became very important. In most of his symphonies Beethoven used the scherzo instead of the minuet. His most outstanding symphonies are the third (the “Eroica”), the fifth, the sixth (the “Pastoral”), the seventh, and the ninth, which calls for four vocal soloists and a chorus.
The romantic composers preserved the traditional cyclic pattern of the symphony but changed its content. A brilliant example of the lyrical symphony, an important romantic genre, is the Symphony in B minor by F. Schubert, who composed eight symphonies. This line of development was continued in Mendelssohn’s five symphonies, which often represent musical depictions of scenes. Thus, symphonies acquired the programmatic features typical of romantic compositions. Among the romantics’ programmatic works are the brilliantly innovative Symphonie fantastique by Berlioz, who composed four symphonies, and Liszt’s Faust Symphony and Symphony to Dante’s “Divina Commedia,” which were written later. However, during the romantic period programmatic ideas were most frequently embodied in one-movement forms such as the symphonic poem and the fantasia. R. Schumann’s four symphonies are in the tradition of Beethoven’s symphonies, as well as Schubert’s lyrical epic Symphony in C major. The last of Saint-Saëns’ three symphonies, as well as Franck’s Symphony in D minor, reflect Wagner’s influence. The most outstanding symphonic composer of the late 19th century and early 20th centuries was G. Mahler, who completed nine symphonies, some of which include vocal parts.
In the West major symphonies were composed by representatives of the new national schools, including the late-19th-century composer A. Dvorak (Bohemia) and the 20th-century composers K. Szymanowski (Poland), E. Elgar and R. Vaughan Williams (Great Britain), and J. Sibelius (Finland). The French composers A. Honegger and D. Milhaud wrote symphonies distinguished for their innovativeness. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries the full-scale symphony prevailed, and many works were written for expanded orchestra. Later, the chamber symphony, modest in scope and intended for an ensemble of soloists, gained importance.
The symphony was an important genre in Russian music. The most outstanding Russian symphonies were written by A. P. Borodin (two finished symphonies, the second of which is known as the “Bogatyrs’ “), Tchaikovsky (six symphonies, including the “Pathetique” and the “Manfred” Symphony, a programmatic work), A. K. Glazunov (eight finished symphonies), A. N. Scriabin (three), and Rachmaninoff (three).
The symphony has also been favored by Soviet composers, who have written many outstanding works in the genre. Among the Soviet symphonists are N. Ia. Miaskovskii (27 symphonies), S. S. Prokofiev (seven), D. D. Shostakovich (15), an A. I. Kha-chaturian (three). Major symphonies have been written by composers from the Ukraine, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Latvia, Estonia, and other Soviet republics.