observatory, orbiting definition of observatory, orbiting in the Free Online Encyclopedia.

observatory, orbiting, research satellite satellite, artificial, object constructed by humans and placed in orbit around the earth or other celestial body (see also space probe ). The satellite is lifted from the earth's surface by a rocket and, once placed in orbit, maintains its motion without further
..... Click the link for more information. designed to study solar radiation, electromagnetic radiation electromagnetic radiation, energy radiated in the form of a wave as a result of the motion of electric charges. A moving charge gives rise to a magnetic field, and if the motion is changing (accelerated), then the magnetic field varies and in turn produces an
..... Click the link for more information. from distant stars, the earth's atmosphere atmosphere [Gr.,=sphere of air], the mixture of gases surrounding a celestial body with sufficient gravity to maintain it. Although some details about the atmospheres of other planets and satellites are known, only the earth's atmosphere has been well studied, the
..... Click the link for more information. , or the like. Because the atmosphere and other aspects of the earth's environment interfere with astronomical observations from the ground, especially in the ultraviolet and infrared portions of the spectrum, the decades since the 1960s have seen increasing emphasis on space-based observatories.

The U.S. Orbiting Solar Observatory Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO), series of eight orbiting observatories (see observatory, orbiting ) launched between 1962 and 1971 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to study the sun in the ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths filtered out by
..... Click the link for more information. (OSO) program, comprising eight satellites launched between 1962 and 1971, was one of the earliest series of orbiting observatories; it studied the sun's atmosphere and the sunspot cycle. Also beginning in 1962 and extending through 1979 were the launches of the six satellites in Great Britain's Ariel program, which concentrated on solar ultraviolet and X radiation. The Orbiting Geophysical Observatory Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (OGO), series of six orbiting observatories (see observatory, orbiting ) launched between 1964 and 1969 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to study the earth's atmosphere, ionosphere , and magnetosphere and
..... Click the link for more information. (OGO) program consisted of six satellites, launched between 1964 and 1969, that provided data on the earth's atmosphere, ionosphere ionosphere (īŏn`əsfēr)
..... Click the link for more information. , and magnetosphere and on the solar wind solar wind, stream of ionized hydrogen—protons and electrons—with an 8% component of helium ions and trace amounts of heavier ions that radiates outward from the sun at high speeds.
..... Click the link for more information. . The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO), series of four orbiting observatories (see observatory, orbiting ) launched between 1966 and 1972 by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to provide astronomical data in the ultraviolet and X-ray
..... Click the link for more information. (OAO) program comprised four satellites, launched between 1966 and 1972, that studied astronomical phenomena at ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths inaccessible to earthbound equipment.

In the following years, a large number of satellites were launched to study solar and galactic radio waves, X rays, gamma rays, and ultraviolet rays. In addition to the United States a number of countries participated, among them the Netherlands with ANS-1 (1974–76), which studied soft and hard X radiation; India with Aryabhata (1975), which returned atmospheric data for only four days before being silenced by a power failure; Japan with Hakucho (1979–85) and Tenma (1981–84), both of which studied X radiation; and the European Space Agency (ESA) with Exosat (1983–86), an X-ray observatory. This period also saw the first cooperative efforts, such as the International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE), a joint effort of the United States, ESA, and Great Britain (1978–96), which returned data on ultraviolet radiation for 18 years.

ROSAT [Roentgen Satellite] (1990–99), a joint German-U.S.-British project, studied both X-ray and ultraviolet wavelengths never before imaged from space. It detected a new class of bright stars that shine only in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum and X-ray emissions from comets. The Cosmic Background Explorer (1989–93) studied microwave background radiation that no star or other known object could emit—it is believed to have come from the creation of the universe (see cosmology cosmology, area of science that aims at a comprehensive theory of the structure and evolution of the entire physical universe .

Modern Cosmological Theories

..... Click the link for more information. ). The Infrared Space Observatory (ISO; 1995–98), launched by ESA, found water in the Orion nebula and in the atmospheres of the giant planets and Titan, found fluoride molecules in interstellar space, and studied the "cool" galaxies first seen by the Infrared Astronomy Satellite (IRAS) in 1983. Another European-built orbiting observatory, the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), was launched by NASA in 1995. After reaching a position about 950,000 mi (1.5 million km) from the earth, where the gravitational attraction of the earth and the sun are in balance (called a Lagrangian point), SOHO initiated a program of solar physics studies, such as the solar wind and solar plumes.

To fully explore the cosmos it is necessary to collect and analyze radiation emitted by phenomena throughout the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Toward that end, NASA proposed the concept of great observatories, a series of four orbiting observatories designed to conduct astronomical studies over many different wavelengths. An important aspect of the program was to overlap the operations phases of the missions to enable astronomers to make concurrent observations of an object at different spectral wavelengths. The first member of the program and the largest orbiting observatory is the Hubble Space Telescope Hubble Space Telescope (HST), the first large optical orbiting observatory . Built from 1978 to 1990 at a cost of $1.5 billion, the HST (named for astronomer E. P. Hubble ) was expected to provide the clearest view yet obtained of the universe.
..... Click the link for more information. (HST), which was deployed by a space shuttle space shuttle, reusable U.S. space vehicle. Developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), it consists of a winged orbiter, two solid-rocket boosters, and an external tank.
..... Click the link for more information. in 1990 and repaired in orbit in 1993. Subsequent servicing missions added capabilities to the HST, which observes the universe at ultraviolet, visual, and near-infrared wavelengths. The second great observatory, the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory, was launched and deployed by a shuttle in 1991; it collected data on gamma-ray bursts, which are some of the most violent physical processes in the universe. The third great observatory, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, formerly called the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility, was deployed from a shuttle and boosted into a high earth orbit in 1999; it focuses on such objects as black holes, quasars, and high-temperature gases throughout the X-ray portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The Spitzer Space Telescope, formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility, represents the fourth and final element in the great observatory program; launched in Aug., 2003, it fills an important gap in wavelength coverage not available from earthbound telescopes.

See also gamma-ray astronomy gamma-ray astronomy, study of astronomical objects by analysis of the most energetic electromagnetic radiation they emit. Gamma rays are shorter in wavelength and hence more energetic than X rays (see gamma radiation ) but much harder to detect and to pinpoint.
..... Click the link for more information. ; infrared astronomy infrared astronomy, study of celestial objects by means of the infrared radiation they emit, in the wavelength range from about 1 micrometer to about 1 millimeter. All objects, from trees and buildings on the earth to distant galaxies, emit infrared (IR) radiation.
..... Click the link for more information. ; space probe space probe, space vehicle carrying sophisticated instrumentation but no crew, designed to explore various aspects of the solar system (see space exploration ).
..... Click the link for more information. ; ultraviolet astronomy ultraviolet astronomy, study of celestial objects by means of the ultraviolet radiation they emit, in the wavelength range from about 90 to about 350 nanometers.
..... Click the link for more information. ; X-ray astronomy X-ray astronomy, study of celestial objects by means of the X rays they emit, in the wavelength range from 0.01 to 10 nanometers. X-ray astronomy dates to 1949 with the discovery that the sun emits X rays.
..... Click the link for more information. .