There are several ways to generate ceramide in mammalian cells (Figure 1): hydrolysis of
sphingomyelin, de novo synthesis from palmitoyl-CoA and serine, catabolism of glucosylceramide and galactosylceramide, synthesis from sphingosine and fatty acid, and dephosphorylation of ceramide-1-phosphate.
Traditional biomarkers CA 19-9, CEA Proteomics CEMIP, C4BPA, IGFBP2, IGFBP3 Metabolites M2-pyruvate kinase (M2-PK), palmitic acid, glucitol, xylitol, inositol, histidine, proline,
sphingomyelin, phosphatidylcholine, isocitrate, ceramide Antibodies immunoglobulin G4 (IgG4) Cytokines interleukin-1[beta], interleukin-6, interleukin-8, interleukin-10, vascular endothelial growth factor and transforming growth factor (macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 [MIC-1]) Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) microRNAs (miRNAs), small ncRNAs (sncRNAs), long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) Liquid biopsy circulating tumor cells (CTCs), circulation tumor DNA (ctDNA) and exosomes Body fluids detecting biomarkers from saliva, urine, stool or pancreatic juice